European Journal of Alternative Education Studies
ISSN: 2501-5915
ISSN-L: 2501-5915
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
Volume 2 │ Issue 1 │ 2017
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.400946
HOW TOMORROW SCIENTISTS VALUE SCIENCE
Paraskevopoulou-Kollia Efrosyni-Alkisti1,
Dedotsi Sofia2,
Palios Zacharias3i
University of Thessaly, Department of Computer Science and
Biomedical Informatics, Greece
2Technological Educational Institution of Athens,
Department of Social Work, Greece
3School of Humanities, Hellenic Open University, Greece
1
Abstract:
This study tried to investigate PhD students experience while conducting research, as
regards the reasons due to which someone chooses to conduct a PhD, the extent to
which science is beneficial to everyday life and their aspects on whether science and
scientists belong to elite . PhD students often come across challenges, successes,
emotional instabilities, enthusiasm, satisfaction, but also failures and disappointments.
Issues of power, truth, research, fame, mystery and understanding new worlds come on
the surface and proved that human beings have desires and weaknesses. We tried via email interviews (with PhD students) to look into all the previous issues mentioned
above.
Keywords: PhD students, research, emotions, elite , experience
Introduction
PhD students constitute a group marked by special characteristic compared to
graduate and postgraduate students. They enter a field full of challenges, experience
successes, emotional rollercoasting, enthusiasm, satisfaction, but also failures and
disappointments. Very often, they realise that they are prisoners of their own efforts, as
well as of the conditions related to their social and psychological capacity
This study has attempted to record the students experience of conducting
research for the purpose of producing a PhD thesis. The aim was to investigate:
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Paraskevopoulou-Kollia Efrosyni-Alkisti, Dedotsi Sofia, Palios Zacharias
HOW TOMORROW SCIENTISTS VALUE SCIENCE
the reasons for which one chooses to conduct a PhD, and
the extent to which science is beneficial to everyday life, and
their views on whether scientists constitute some form of social elite.
Available bibliography on this subject (Greek bibliography in particular) appears
to be particularly sparse. This is probably because the focus of Social Sciences is not
usually on groups that are deemed to be privileged and professionally/socially
secure (as PhD students are typically considered to be); rather, the focus tends to be on
individuals and groups that face problems with their social and/or professional
development and with their interpersonal relationships, or are generally under
threat of social exclusion or overwhelmed by problems in their daily life routine.
Having distanced ourselves from PhD research activity due to time elapsed since
we were in the same position, we had the opportunity to decode more easily the
criteria, the elements, the emotions and the aspirations involved in a decision to
conduct a PhD. Anyone who has gone through this experience have literally seen
themselves under a different prism both during and in the aftermath. One would dare
say that they have conducted a PhD on their PhD .
Factors affecting the decision to conduct research and the choice of subject
There are many possible reasons why one would decide to conduct doctoral
research. The most commonly accepted and understood is the academic career
prospect:
υχτλκψψiτσ.
‛κcauψκ I waσt tτ λτllτw aσ acaικςic caχκκχ aσι cτσιuct χκψκaχcν witνiσ ςy
υ
. In order to pursue this career path it is an essential requirement,
at least formally, to hold a doctoral title. Most believe that this title is inextricably
linked with the university arena. This, however, is not always the case. Most certainly
there are personal motivations for a person to choose to go through the PhD process
but, on a second level, there is the influence from the immediate social environment
(parents, partners, friends, etc.), and of course also a set of factors such as social and
financial conditions that facilitate the decision to commence.
With regard to the academic community, its members are somehow obliged to
get their scientific work recognised. Recognition extends across multiple facets, ranging
from citation index to peer acceptance, participation to international conferences
(especially by invitation), leadership of state and international institutions, etc.
It appears that most scientists choose a subject on the basis of its sound scientific
grounding, the availability of serious and resilient sources of evidence and the
confidence on the prospect of producing results (in which case the research may fail to
achieve popularity) or, conversely, on the basis of novelty and innovation where the
risk of failing to yield significant results is higher (but, in case of success,
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Paraskevopoulou-Kollia Efrosyni-Alkisti, Dedotsi Sofia, Palios Zacharias
HOW TOMORROW SCIENTISTS VALUE SCIENCE
popularity is almost guaranteed . Each scientist s level of ambition and aspiration
obviously contribute to the decision to follow either of two paths. According to
Lemaine
A scientist is typically content with a modest success (and consequently modest
χκcτμσitiτσ
. Wνy, tνκσ, ιτ ψτςκ χiψk vκχy littlκ by cνττψiσμ tτ ιτ χatνκχ uninteresting
χκψκaχcν, yκt τtνκχψ υχκλκχ tτ μaςblκ aμaiσψt all τιιψ? (in Papastamou, 1990: 224).
In conjunction with the above, the fact that a scientist needs to constantly keep
publishing in order to gain acceptance and recognition – the so called publish or
perish - may be a cause for concern. Since the terms of engagement with the academic
community dictate that quality must be sacrificed in favour of producing quantity,
what then eventually really matters is the manner and logic of organising each field of
knowledge – and also obviously each researcher s individual personality.
Regarding the personal reasons that influence a researcher s decision to pursue a
PhD, we will now present a few elements that clarify the prism under which the process
takes place. ‚ccording to Rosenberg
, the self is the set of an individual s
thoughts and emotions, and it includes both a cognitive and an emotional side.
Self-perception and self-image belong to the cognitive side, whereas self-esteem and
total self-worth belong to the emotional side. Moreover, both self- image and selfesteem involve an element of self-evaluation, through which an individual s reaction
potential is produced.
In
, Cooley introduced the term looking-glass self (Cooley, 1902). There
are some significant peers, whose advice we seek in order to affirm and support
ourselves. In other words, our self is the mirror image and our self-image is
composed
by
the
evaluations
carried
out
by
all
those
significant
peers
(Paraskevopoulou-Kollia, 2006). Additionally, Mead (1934) asserted that we can only
exist and express ourselves through interacting with others.
The influence of social surroundings upon the fluctuations of an individual s
changes of stance is incontrovertible and people are affected by their cultural locations
and so they do narrate over their life experience (Gergen, 1972; Street, 1994). In short,
whatever happens around us always affects us. However, it needs to be noted that the
way we are affected varies from individual to individual and is dependent on
educational, social and financial background, life experiences individual personality
traits (Bandura and Walters, 1963) as well as location and time setting. It is impossible,
therefore, for a budding academic s self-image to not be influence by the opinion held
of them by the academic community as well as their social environment.
Aspirations
There are no specific written rules to force students into a predefined trajectory in order
for their aspirations to be fulfilled. Moreover, there are no specific written rules to
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Paraskevopoulou-Kollia Efrosyni-Alkisti, Dedotsi Sofia, Palios Zacharias
HOW TOMORROW SCIENTISTS VALUE SCIENCE
dictate to students what their (scientific, social, financial) aspirations should be. The
scientist enters a dangerous field, full of challenges. The PhD title is earned through
hard work, in order to verify the acquisition of higher knowledge and the transition
to more advanced academic or professional fields. Each student s personal motives for
conducting a PhD may differ from the motives of the University where the work takes
place and the title is eventually awarded. Without doubt, however, for most students
the PhD is associated with their desire to commence and continue life as research for the
purpose of personal satisfaction (Leonard et al., 2005).
Entering the research field
The PhD introduces students into a transitive period which often feels endless.
They are kept in a state of alert against an ambiguous situation that cannot be easily
described, with which they are absolutely connected to and from which they cannot
escape, however they also do not want to escape from. Each and every PhD student is
terrified of entering a research field; a process which, no matter how exciting, is
basically a monotonous (in the sense of discipline) and lonely piece of work. Before
each next step lurks the unknown which may even involve a research outcome
that could result in career death . ‚ny direct and obvious final result is still well past
the horizon, resulting in a sense of constant futility and fear. This fear may or may not
be conscious and may or may not include: the prospect of not completing the research;
the negative criticism by a supervisor or other parties; the lack of a sense of direction; or
the lack of reliability. One must not forget what we already mentioned earlier: The
opinion of significant third parties, and also of the scientific community, has a very high
level of influence and can affect to the point of raising or collapsing a researcher s
sense of self-esteem (Phipps et al., 2007: 236).
A question posed by researchers is whether the self is defined as a subject or an
object (Leontari, 1996). As a subject, the self thinks, remembers, perceives, whereas as
an object the self-escapes is limits, and judges, studies its own personality like an
external observer (Paraskevopoulou-Kollia, 2006). During
the
course
of
PhD
research, the self has difficulties in functioning like an object and is therefore
impeded from escaping its own limits and judging the quality of its own research as an
external observer. Identification of the self with the field of research is very strong, to
the point of becoming indivisible. It is like the truth dilemma. There is never just one
truth when a matter is under investigation.
Loneliness, emotional turmoil, discipline
Essentially, there is nobody capable of understanding the stages a PhD student is going
through. Even supervisors and viva board members are unable to recall their own
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Paraskevopoulou-Kollia Efrosyni-Alkisti, Dedotsi Sofia, Palios Zacharias
HOW TOMORROW SCIENTISTS VALUE SCIENCE
memories from the time when they themselves were subject to the same processes –
therefore unable to impart to the student a sense of security and autonomy. These need
to be
earned
by the students themselves and the path through the alternation
between extreme positive and negative emotive responses appears to be a one-way
system.
Kearns et al
have termed the period of PhD studies as a race between the
student and oneself . In their effort to produce something original, students hit a wall
of
anxiety,
exhaustion
and
feelings
of
self-cancellation.
Overcommitment,
procrastination and perfectionism (Kearns et al., 2008; Blanchot, 1989) are side- effects of
their confusion regarding their motivations and the quality of their output. Βlanchot
described this confusion as a form of incomprehensible torture where the
student self-flagellates by constantly pondering on whether the content of his/her writeup is something magnificent or insignificant, whereas liberation and re-assertion of selfperception is achieved by completing the authoring of the thesis. However,
this
process carries a risk of quitting the effort, or even long-term (negative)
consequences on one s future professional life Kearns et al.,
.
PhD research has been described as a convoluted process
Deegan & Hill,
1991). Its duration typically spans a number of years, from three to six depending on the
type of course offered by the university and/or chosen by the student (Blanchot, 1989:
55). It requires persistence and discipline (occasionally also including leadership skills,
teaching skills, team spirit and administrative skills) and causes difficulties to the
student because it requires a much higher level of involvement and discipline,
especially in cases where the supervisor is based in a different country or has a
particularly busy schedule. In these cases, the student feels isolated and abandoned. A
problematic relationship with the supervisor contributes to procrastination and
isolation. Conversely,
treating
PhD
students
academic community may function as a
as
significant members
protection shield
of
the
Hakanen et al.,
Leiter & Maslach, 1988).
Contrary to the majority of the bibliography, which emphasizes on the negative
and traumatic side-effects of PhD research, the study by Pyhalto et al. (2009) deals with
the positive consequences. The centrepiece in this range is the development of
critical thought skills and abilities: ability to control and compose ideas and
information, recognition of opposing opinion, utilisation of knowledge for the
purpose of interpreting data and evidence. Helps you see what happens around you on a
daily basis through a critical eye and allows you to have a higher level of analytic ability .
To conclude: while a PhD student experiences both positive and negative
emotional fluctuations, the process is a journey whereby the PhD is the vehicle that will
convert the student to an academic (Deegan & Hill, 1991). This prospect, combined with
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HOW TOMORROW SCIENTISTS VALUE SCIENCE
the right kind of relationship with the academic community, can constitute the
motivation for completing the PhD course. Ignorance of the consequences of a
demanding and painstaking piece of work, in combination with personal ambition and
the social/financial conditions that may or may not facilitate the commencement and
conclusion of research, are catalytic factors for a researcher-author. Eventually,
everything depends on the student s degree of perceived security and on the conflict
with himself. Whereas the PhD aims to a significant contribution to the academic
community, it still remains a personal affair.
Tiςκ νaι ψtτυυκι all I caχκι abτut waψ ςκκtiσμ tνκ ικaιliσκ. Evκχy ψiσμlκ ιay waψ
committed to research, especially towards the end. A lot of anxiety, and a burden that
would not allow me to enjoy anything else in my parallel life. However, I could feel my
intellectual powers reaching a state of orgasm, whereby they would incessantly
work and create. Adrenaline had a soothing effect and I felt constantly euphoric. I could
not wait λτχ ςy cνilι-iικa tτ cτςυlκtκ itψ biχtν ψτ tνat I cτulι λiσι ψτςκ χκliκλ
(p7)
Duχiσμ ςy PνD, ςy κςτtiτσψ wκχκ all ςixκι uυ, χaσμiσμ λχτς abψτlutκ jτy, a λκκliσμ τλ
euphoria and inspiration and a strong sense of self-esteem, all the way to
pessimism and personal devaluation. Sometimes you love it when your ideas and
preconceptions are overthrown as you wade through the bibliography, and sometimes you
hate it because you are desperate to reach a successful conclusion. Delivery feκlψ likκ it ψ
infinitely far away, and doubting of the results becomes progressively stronger. Long
discussions with other students and with my supervisor for days on end, and on other
days I do not even want to describe my research aims to colleagues when they ask me.
However, this love-hate relationship with the PhD is highly addictive. Even when
σκμativκ tντuμνtψ aχκ υχκψκσt, tνκy aχκ quickly ψuχυaψψκι by tνκ tνiχψt λτχ χκψκaχcν.
(p12)
Methodology
This study is based on
mail mini dialogues - with PhD students, enquiring about
their perspectives and feelings on science and on choosing and writing up their
research. More specifically, we asked the candidates three questions, namely: their
opinion on science; whether scientists are believed to be elite; and the reasons why they
chose the research path .
From the very beginning, the researcher who chooses interviews for data
collection has to know that this is a method considered more capable of allowing the
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interviewee's personal views to emerge (Flick, 2004), in order for the main aim to be
achieved: the information to be as accurate as possible. Interviews are facing issues of
validity and self- expression. Furthermore, the connection between the data and the
arising facts is a sort of conceptual truth . We were interested in people s narratives
and reflective understanding of their every-day life experience during the PhD period
and interviews could give us the opportunity to capture and develop the personal
concepts that each one of them, coming from different social and cultural background,
may have and, accordingly, may share (Busher, 2001; James, 2003; Duranti, 1997;
Cazden, 2000).
What one has to remember is that qualitative research has always to take into
account the need to avoid generalization of findings.
Using semi-structured e-mail interviews
Semi-structured interviews are low-cost and they can appear to be a rapid method for
gathering information from individuals (Meho, 2006; Blomberg, et al., 1993). This is
exactly what happens with interviews via e-mail, as well. They are low-cost and they
have the possibility to give access to world-wide samples. The researcher has the
opportunity to eliminate any errors introduced through incorrect transcription and
work on respondent s exact words (http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU21.html, Selwyn &
Robson, 1998).
Most of the data were collected by means of electronic communications
with strangers – thus giving them the benefit of being able to respond in their own time
and space, calm and without tension (Olivero & Lunt, 2004: 104). In this case, it is
possible to lose some information related to verbal communications and body language
but still research showed that responses were genuine, thoughtful and insightful, while
still conveying emotion
McCoyd & Kerson,
. The truth is that interpersonal
problems are avoided, though anonymity cannot be ensured.
The sample
The sample consisted of a total of 24 PhD students, doing research in Greece and in
other European countries. Of those, 12 answered the first two questions and 12
answered the third questionii. They all constituted a group of people that agreed/were
happy to express and expose their attitudes and dispositions towards such conflicting
issues.
ii
We refer to them as p1-12 and p1a-12a when writing their quotes.
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HOW TOMORROW SCIENTISTS VALUE SCIENCE
Problems in language affecting the interviews’ analysis
Most of the answers were in Greek and, in some cases; there were some difficulties in
transferring and analyzing the exact meaning of the words spoken. Some terms could
not be accurately translated. We tried to analyze the given data through being as
accurate as possible through presenting the respondents points of view and expression
without changing them according to my personal beliefs. There is also something that
needs mentioning this study does try to look for common ground across respondents
answers and cultures and for differences across them, as well.
Findings
Discussion
The findings of this study have come from e-mail interviews (taken for small scale
research) that took place from March 2014 to July 2014. The interview schedule
comprises three questions, which refer to science/research benefitting everyday life, to
scientists and whether they constitute of elite and the reason why they do research. The
analysis and comparisons can be made between beliefs, emotions, experiences, stresses
and opinions expressed and felt by PhD candidates, in relation to each question.
Each respondent gave their own unique answers, even though similarities were not
uncommon between respondents.
It is very important to make it clear that those answers were viewpoints, beliefs
and attitudes of each individual, which consist of personal elements such as their
feelings, emotions and ideas. That makes the grouping and categorizing a more
delicate
procedure where the boundaries cannot be very strictly defined.
Undoubtedly, approximations have been taken in the analysis in order to provide the
best possible categorization. The findings are presented under three sub-headings
within which individual questions have been analyzed: aspects of learning, aspects of
teaching and aspects of impact on self as teacher.
Answers on whether Science/Research benefits everyday life
Data analysis on the survey responses suggests that most PhD students subscribe to the
opinion that science assists and serves daily life and, consequently, humanity. This is
definitely the case when science is conducted under suitable terms and conditions.
There is one knowledge, but on multiple fields of science. These differ between
them but also share some common elements. One has to underline the discrimination
towards humanities that are assumed to be less strict compared to positivist
scientific fields, such as physics, biology and so forth; these called hard sciences.
However, humanities and social sciences are treated with a lot of suspicion in
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Paraskevopoulou-Kollia Efrosyni-Alkisti, Dedotsi Sofia, Palios Zacharias
HOW TOMORROW SCIENTISTS VALUE SCIENCE
comparison to hard and physical sciences. This might be attributed to several reasons
including traditional discrimination in favour of natural laws that govern the universe
and have universal value. Positivist studies are considered harder and more demanding
than
studies
in
the
humanities
(see
Storer,
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC198502/pdf/mlab00170-0094.pdf).
Science is, indeed, a social activity and such as is governed by the same sort of
forces that govern social behaviour generally (Nowotny, Scott & Gibbons, 2001: 245).
Additionally, the benefits arising from the findings of hard science is more readily
observable and more directly verifiable (see Douthwaite et al., 2001). All these notions
are evident in the quotes that follow. The items of information provided by the subject
have been clearly stated, and our intervention is meant to be viewed only within the
framework of our attempt to interpret the information supplied and to emphasise the
elements that are relevant to the needs of our study:
Wνκσ χκψκaχch is conducted in the right direction and under the right motives, it
certainly improves day-to-day life and, consequently, quality of life. These two
cνaχactκχiψticψ aχκ υχκχκquiψitκψ iσ acνiκviσμ tνκ λiσal aiς.
(p4)
All sciences are good in theory aσι νκlυλul iσ υχacticκ.
(p8)
Sciκσcκ iψ νκlυλul, iλ υχτυκχly aυυliκι.
(p12)
Yκψ, I ιτ bκliκvκ tνat ψciκσcκ iψ bκσκλicial tτ κvκχyιay liλκ wνκσ it iψ cτχχκctly utiliψκι.
For example, the management of everyday tasks (communication, transport, health,
education, environment, functional and environmentally friendly home) is more
efficient and clearly more effective. Also, through research it is possible to document and
verify things that people used to do empirically, then people can either reject them or
caχχy τσ witν tνκς.
(p5)
Sciκσcκ/χκψκaχcν νaψ κςκχμκι aψ a ςκaσψ τλ iςυχτviσμ υκτυlκψ κvκχyιay liλκ, λχτς tνκ
iσvκσtiτσ τλ tνκ wνκκl tτ tνκ λiχψt ψtκυψ iσ ςκιiciσκ.
(p6)
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HOW TOMORROW SCIENTISTS VALUE SCIENCE
Iσ ςy τυiσiτσ, χκψκaχcν iψ aσ iσιiψυκσψablκ tττl tτ wνat iψ basic to human development
and civilization. Many claim that, (scientific or social) research is deemed as a theoretical
iσvκψtiμatiτσ wνicν aιvaσcκψ kστwlκιμκ witντut a ψυκciλic υχactical aυυlicatiτσ
However, once this knowledge is spread it fosters innovation and promotes growth which
affects everyday life. It would be naïve to believe that science or research is simply an
uσσκcκψψaχy luxuχy.
(p1)
I ψκκk ψτlutiτσψ tτ υχτblκςψ tνat aχκ νitνκχtτ uσψτlvκι.
(p10)
‚υaχt λχτς tνκ iσtκllκctual υχocess, quality of life has improved due to research in all
ψciκσtiλic λiκlιψ.
(p9)
Tτ ςκ it aυυκaχψ tνat tνκχκ iψ a ιyσaςic χκlatiτσψνiυ bκtwκκσ ψciκσcκ/χκψκaχcν aσι
everyday life. You dispute, investigate, and start over. You start seeing everyday life
tνχτuμν σκw λiltκχψ κvκχy tiςκ, τbψκχviσμ ικtailψ tνat νavκ bκκσ cχκatκι τχ will cχκatκ
σκw χκψκaχcν iσtκχκψtψ, it υχτviικψ ψτlutiτσψ tτ υχτblκςψ aσι ςakκψ υκτυlκ ψ livκψ κaψiκχ.
(p7)
Apart from the positive outlook, science/research is also viewed with (and
contains therein) an element of suspicion. This is why it ought to be transparent with
regard to the content of its findings and products. Apart from its positives, it is also a
means to display power and present temptations, therefore carrying the risk of
becoming a means of exploitations between human beings:
Fτχ κxaςυlκ, κvκχybτιy cτςυlaiσψ tνat tνκ billiτσψ ψυκσι τσ υνyψicψ κxυκχiςκσtψ at
CERN are a pointless waste of money. They are not aware, however, that this is where
the internet was created. On the other hand, Oppenheimer created the nuclear bomb
baψκι τσ Eiσψtκiσ ψ tνκτχiκψ. Tνκ ψaςκ iψ tνκ caψκ λτχ ψτcial ψciκσcκψ ψucν aψ Ecτστςicψ.
(p3)
Tνκ υχτblκς κςκχμκψ wνκσ ψciκσcκ/χκψκaχcν tuχσψ iσtτ a buψiσκψψ. Tνκχκ ςay ψtill be
benefits to everyday life, either actual ones or deliberately engineered in order to achieve
funding, but the ultimate aim is solely profit. In this case, everyday life may be at risk
from profit-ιχivκσ ψciκσcκ/χκψκaχcν.
(p2)
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Paraskevopoulou-Kollia Efrosyni-Alkisti, Dedotsi Sofia, Palios Zacharias
HOW TOMORROW SCIENTISTS VALUE SCIENCE
‚ μχκat υκχcκσtaμκ of research groups work on projects aiming to help society and solve
serious problems. At the same time, their outcome can be used by other research groups
in order to achieve the exact opposite result. A small example from medicine: cancer
research is aiming to help millions of people suffering from this horrible disease – but
there are also numerous cases of research labs that have been accused of developing and
spreading viruses that contaminate people, in order to increase the profits of
pharmaceutical cτςυaσiκψ.
(p11)
I bκliκvκ tνat νaχι ψciκσcκ χκψκaχcν ψucν aψ, λτχ iσψtaσcκ, tνκ aιaυtatiτσ τλ a ςκιiciσκ,
the manufacturing of a better plastic, energy studies, etc, are related to the everyday life
experience of many people and, because they are carried out in collaboration
with
businesses and organisations they will (if successful) eventually find their way to the
μκσκχal υublic.
(p10)
One interviewee reported the following: I λiσι tνκ quκψtiτσ υaχticulaχly ιiλλicult tτ
answer when asked about of the research topics in social sciences and humanities I remember the
subject of a Sociology PhD thesis carried out by an acquaintance of mine, on a subject related to
the Chicago school and some branches of psychology (cannot remember the exact details) and,
when we talked about it, I kept thinking it is terrible that a subject that we find so interesting has
στ κλλκctivκ cτσtχibutiτσ tτ aσy υκχψτσ ψ liλκ. I bκliκvκ tνat aσy χκψκaχcν χκlatκι tτ ψτcial ψciκσcκψ
or humanities is effectively τλ στ bκσκλit tτ υκτυlκ ψ κvκχyιay liλκ but, iλ υχτυκχly utiliψκι by tνκiχ
taχμκt μχτuυψ aσι τtνκχ χκψκaχcνκψ tνκy ςay, iσ tiςκ, cνaσμκ υκτυlκ ψ livκψ witνiσ a ψτciκty τχ
maybe even change society itself by helping formulate new ideas, new policies, new views, new
perspectives on reality. I will back up this view by using as an example my own PhD work on
educational policies for gender equality in relation to actual educational practices. If my research
produces any worthy outcome then, maybe, if it gets noticed by people whose job is to formulate
policies –either from above or from below – it may prompt them to adapt their gender equality
policies based on my research; or maybe further research may be based on my research which and
eventually be utilised in order to improve the current practices until at least one boy or girl
becomes more aware and conscious of his/her gender role. This benefit, which I consider very
important, will not necessarily change the whole of society; or, if it does, it will do so over the
lτσμ tκχς.
υ4 . Or, to summarise, science-research is important, but the utilisation of its
products over the long term is even more important.
Another interviewee expressed the view that science is the bases of all
human activity:
The answer can be given in the form of simple questions, all of them
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rhetorical in my opinion. Iψ a χττλ abτvκ τσκ ψ νκaι, tνκ ψuυυly τλ ψaλκ ιχiσkiσμ watκχ, τχ tνκ
provision of healthcare, beneficial to everyday life? Consequently, is a civil engineer useful in
designing and creating buildings, roads and water supply infrastructure? Is a doctor needed in
order to ensure a long but most importantly high quality life? And, to take this one step
backwards: is research necessary? Is it necessary to design better materials for the construction
of buildings? Or the lab research in order to invent pharmaceutical products that can beat, for
κxaςυlκ, HIV? Cτulι tνκ aσψwκχ tτ aσy τλ tνκψκ quκψtiτσψ κvκχ bκ σκμativκ?
υ8
Science may occasionally appear to function in an opportunistic base that cannot
be beneficial to society. Self-limitation may not be ingrained in human nature, therefore
society must be organised in a manner that restricts the laws of natural selection.
Science could be considered as prestige and prestige is power. As Aronowitz mentions:
tνκ tκχς ψciκσtiλic cτςςuσity νaψ bκcτςκ iικσtical witν ψτcial cτσtκxt
and
ψuυυτχt λτχ tνκ υχτυτψitiτσ tνat ψciκσcκ aσι tνκ ψciκσtiλic ςiliκu iψ χκlativκly
autτστςτuψ iψ ψtill υτwκχλul
(Aronowitz,
https://files.nyu.edu/mr185/public/www/classes/readings/Aronowitzfull.htm)
‛τtν iσ Gχκκcκ aσι iσ ‛χitaiσ I νavκ cτςκ acχτψψ υχτλκψψτχψ cτσιuctiσμ χκψκaχcν λor
their own benefit, sometimes indifferent and, worst of all, always prepared to place
obstacles on colleagues by rejecting funding applications or just plainly refusing to offer
aσy λτχς τλ aψψiψtaσcκ . ‚ υχτλκψψτχ ψ aιvicκ tτ ςκ wνκσ I waψ lττkiσμ λτr a PhD subject
yτu ςuψt μτ wνκχκ tνκ ςτσκy iψ
iψ, I tνiσk, a tyυical κxaςυlκ τλ tνκ ςκσtality
underlying research. Any progress achieved so far is relevant only to the Western world
and only to specific sectors. Our overall quality of life is rather diminishing, and
κvκχyιay liλκ bκcτςκψ υχτμχκψψivκly νaχικχ λτχ ςτψt τλ uψ.
(p7)
Science must be appropriately utilised in order to bear results:
Tτ bκμiσ
with, scientific (or not) research is defined as a procedure whereby the researcher is able to make
a conclusive statement on a study created by him/her with the aim of judging facts with the
minimum bias possible. If this bias is very low, then research most of the times succeeds in
providing people with evidence on events they already know theoretically but lack proof. For
example, in a typical day people have to make better choices with their money and research on
behavioural economics can help people to do so. Another typical example is that of biomedical
research which has proven how exercise can help with the treatment of mental or eating
disorders. These are specific examples where people who do not belong in the field of research
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may be aware that, say, exercise can help but the extent of its effect can only be measured
through research (i.e. collection and analysis of data). In the field of economics, for example,
research is mostly a quest for new knowledge and exploration of the unknown by building on a
theory. In Economics, no application is possible since all the experiments arκ σatuχal.
υ
Answers on whether scientist are perceived as elite
Regarding the second question, the respondents points of view were conflicting. In
general, the respondents agree to place in the 'elite' the financially strong people, with
the exception of one person s view who said that dedicated scientists are the
elite
within academia galaxy. The divergence on subjects responses is due to the fact that
respondents questioned the social value of scientific identity and contribution. They
regard different scientists as 'elite' or not, depending on their social origin. Most
respondents first tried to define what is meant by the term 'elite'. Clearly, everyone gave
a different perspective on the definition of the term.
Tνκ tκχς 'κlitκ' νaψ many meanings, and varies depending on the context set by society.
I cannot say that the majority of researchers are paid so much that I could categorise them
into the financial elite. In societies where suspicion and misery are ingrained, they are
even "accused" for the journey they make for educational reasons or the government
λuσιiσμ tνat tνκy takκ. ‚t lκaψt iσ ‛χitaiσ tνκ illuψiτσ tνat tνκy aχκ κlitκ iψ μκσκχatκι by
cνaσμiσμ tνκ υκχψτσ'ψ titlκ λχτς Mχ / Mχψ tτ Dχ.
(p4)
Lκt ςκ claχiλy tνat the below do not apply to all researchers since individual criteria are
in place in each sector, society, culture. But unfortunately they refer to the majority of
χκψκaχcνκχψ, wντ all ψκκ acaικςic υτψtψ.
(p6)
Rκal χκψκaχcνκχψ wντ bκliκvκ tνat ψciκσce should be for the common good and devote all
their lives to science constitute 'elite' and stand out for their spirit. For example, Einstein
made over 300 publications - abτut
a yκaχ. Tνiψ iψ λaχ λχτς wνat I ς ιτiσμ aσι I σκκι
3-4 publications in 5-6 years so I can remain in the academia. Otherwise the rest just
make a living - υκχνaυψ ςτχκ ψubtly.
(p12)
I tνiσk tνat ψciκσtiψtψ aχκ στt tνκ κlitκ τλ τuχ ψτciκty aσι tνat iψ bκcauψκ tνκ valuκψ aσι
our culture in general have changed. Plus I think that the term 'elite' means financially
υτwκχλul.
(p9)
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Hτw ιτ yτu ικλiσκ 'κlitκ'? Sτcially? Nτ, ψucν a claψψiλicatiτσ does not exist anymore in
4. Mτψt 'ψciκσtiψtψ' bκlτσμ tτ tνκ ςiιιlκ claψψ.
(p5)
I ικλiσκ 'κlitκ' iσ tκχςψ τλ ψτcial ψtatuψ. In this sense the scientist is not considered 'elite'
unless s/he has a great income or wealth and comes from a family with high social status.
Oλ cτuχψκ iσ μκσκχal ψ/νκ νaψ a νiμν ψtatuψ, but I wτulι στt cνaχactκχizκ νκχ/νiς aψ κlitκ.
(p2)
I τvκχall think we need to feel that as scientists we are intellectuals (would prefer that
term) which does not seem to be the case, as the scientist is familiar with a tiny bit of
science and the intellectual is someone who has broad knowledge and aspects surpassing
her/his capacity as researcher or scientist of a particular field and I would describe
νκχ/νiς aψ a ςτικχσ υνilτψτυνκχ . ‚ ψciκσtiψt iψ a υτtκσtial iσtκllκctual.
(p7)
My aσψwκχ tτ tνiψ quκψtiτσ iψ baψκι τσ a μκσκχaliψatiτσ στt all but ςτψt of the scientist
are arrogant and elitists). I believe that one must study hard to become a scientist.
Someone from an elite background is more likely to have the resources and parental
support to succeed academically. I however strongly support the idea that society makes
scientists elitists. The practice of science is elitist in the sense that we all know who the
top scientists in our fields are and these individuals are often treated with great
reverence. On the other hand, as scientist Michael Brooks claims wκ χκ ςakiσμ a biμμκχ
contribution than anyone else – why does nobody appreciate uψ? Tνκ ψtatκςκσt ιτκψ
sound arrogant; I however believe that scientists do make massive contributions
sometimes without any recognition at all. To conclude I do believe that scientists are
elitists; but then in our society today, sport is elitist, art is elitist and few can afford it,
but no one complains. I agree that science should be open to everyone but not irrespective
of their ability. In that sense sciκσtiψtψ aσι acaικςicψ aχκ κlitiψtψ.
(p8)
Yκψ, tνκy cτσψtitutκ κlitκ .
(p11)
Nτ. Rκψκaχcν ιτκψ στt iςυly ψuυκχiτχity. Iσ τχικχ ψτςκτσκ tτ bκlτσμ tτ tνκ κlitκ ψ/νκ
must combine many skills and particular sociological and political, that scientists
generally do not have. When you consider 'elite' as a group of people who can influence
the political and social life, then scientists can not belong to this group because they do
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not aim to control society but they aim to their personal satisfaction through their work
aσι ςτχal κxυlτitatiτσ τλ tνκiχ ιiψcτvκχiκψ τχ iσvκσtiτσψ.
(p1)
Sciκσcκ / Rκψκaχcν νaψ a ιyσaςic χκlatiτσψνiυ witν tνκ ιaily χτutiσκ λτχ ςκ. Yτu
contest, survey, over and over again. You begin to see everyday life through new 'filters'
each time, observing details that have been created by research interests or you create
σκw.
(p3)
The answer is directly related to the point of view from which you see it. So there is the
perspective of society and the perspective of the researcher. From the perspective of
society, the first factor to consider is the financial rewards for researchers and if there are
such that could classify them as 'elite'. The answer is a glaring no. Not when at least 10
years studies is needed in order to become a researcher, studies that automatically isolate
you from the labour market. And when you become a researcher, the salary will be unable
to exceed the salary of a civil servant and that is because salaries, unfortunately or
fortunately, are closely related to profit. The profit that one can generate for a particular
operator, company etc. And this profit certainly cannot be generated by a researcher.
Fχτς tνκ υκχψυκctivκ τλ tνκ χκψκaχcνκχ, tντuμν, tνκ aσψwκχ iψ yκψ, ψciκσtiψtψ aχκ κlitκ .
Wνat iψ κlitκ ? Iψ ικχivκι λχτς tνκ Latiσ vκχb κliμκχκ = cνττψκ aσι ικστtκψ tνκ cντψκσ .
Chosen by society and fine the work that s/he has undertaken, which is to improve and
lengthen the life of the community through a systematic search of it.
(p10)
Answers on why they (the PhD candidates) do research
The third question was on why they decided to deal with research. This question was
only presented to a different group of respondents (i.e. not the ones who answered the
previous two questions). This was in order to ease time pressure and prevent hasty
responses.
I ιτ χκψκaχcν bκcauψκ I likκ it. I aς λaψciσatκι by tνκ υτψψibility tνat ψτςκ τλ wνat I ιτ
can lead to a better world. Also through my research I am offered the opportunity to meet
σκw iικaψ, υκτυlκ aσι υlacκψ tνat ςτψt likκly I wτulι στt νavκ kστwσ τtνκχwiψκ.
(p1a)
I ιτ it tτ λκκl ψυiχitual λulλilςκσt aψ I likκ tνκ χκψκaχcν aσι λχτς tνκ ςτςκσt I caσ τλλκχ
something bigger (science), I do it. To say that I put my little help in the whole evolution
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... no matter how small it may be. You know ... I have enough force, so I could use it for
something [...]. Because I like the academic career and I love to teach
Yτu kστw
. tτ
υχτυaμatκ wνat I kστw.
(p5a)
Lττk, accτχιiσμly, the reasons have changed. I started because I liked it, then I
continued because I got a scholarship and I was getting good money and now I continue
it as work even though I do not earn good money, because I like it and it has 3-4 ςτσtνψ
vacation. It is important that you work at your own pace without having fixed working
ντuχψ.
(p9a)
Iσ μκσκχal, I caσ στt λiσι a ψυκciλic χκaψτσ tνat ικtκχςiσκι ςy ικciψiτσ tτ ικal witν
research. The main reason was my personal interest to develop my knowledge in a field
that interests me. Moreover, I felt that my involvement with research would personally
help me to evolve and improve my skills as regards self-management but also resource
management. It was clearly a conscious decision for me, not only do a PhD, but also
under which conditions I wanted to do a PhD (supervisor, subject etc.). I always saw it
as a necessary step for my professional and personal evolution. Perhaps therefore it
cτσcκalψ aσ iσtiςatκ χκaψτσ aψψτciatκι witν υχκψtiμκ.
(p12a)
Oσκ χκaψτσ iψ tνat tνχτuμν χκψκaχcν I caσ μivκ aσψwκχψ aσι ψτlutiτσψ tτ iςυτχtaσt
problems. The prospect that the results of my research could enable me to assist in
addressing a problem is a very important incentive that helps me answering the question
why I do research. Motivation is also interesting; via research I deal with a very difficult
issue which requires patience and perseverance to be resolved. Still, participation in a
group that shares the same purpose is very interesting. Although research is a very
solitary process, in order to solve the problems the contribution of ideas from
several scientists is usually required. The exchange of views and culture of thinking is
very important experience. Also, the experience can be used in new problems inside and
outside the research environment. Research is a way to revise the knowledge that already
exists. Not only the production of new knowledge, but also the transmission of it is a very
important element of the research process. For example, to convince other scientists for an
iικa ψ iσστvatiτσ iψ vκχy iσtκχκψtiσμ cνallκσμκ.
(p7a)
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I ιτ χκψκaχcν bκcauψκ I likκ ςy Pχτλκψψτχ!
(p3a)
I have been interested in becoming a researcher since I was maybe 12 years old, so doing
a PhD thesis is completely natural in this case. I would also like to try, after my PhD
degree, to work in the R&D sector in private companies, at least in order to see and to
compare private and public sectors. An element making me definitely chose to do the PhD
thesis is that I worried about doing a job which would not match with my expectations if
I directly tried to find another job after the masters degree, so with a thesis I have the
hope that my future job will be more or less linked to what I'm currently working
τσ, wνicν iψ aσ iσtκχκψtiσμ ψubjκct λτχ ςκ.
(p8a)
‚λtκχ a M.Sc. τχ a PνD wκ baψically νavκ twτ υτψψibilitiκψ ιτiσμ ψτςκ ςaσaμκςκσt τχ
going for a more technical/scientific career. I chose scientific studies because I feel
comfortable doing sciences and I don't see myself managing people, so this is the reason
why I decided to go for a Ph.D. rather than finding an engineer job. Also, a researcher
career is mandatory for people who want to work in the academic field and this is what I
waσt tτ ιτ!
(p2a)
Fχτς ςy υτiσt τλ viκw, wκ ιτ χκψκaχcν bκcauψκ it iψ a way tτ cτσtχibutκ iσ tνκ
iςυχτvκςκσt τλ tνκ cuχχκσt cτσιitiτσψ tνat aλλκct tνκ κxiψtκσcκ τλ aσy liviσμ bκiσμ.
(p4a)
Dτiσμ χκψκaχcν waψσ't in my mind 2 years ago. But after an internship in a lab, I found
this work really interesting, it makes you learn a lot of things every day, and
collaboration between researchers from different fields makes you develop new skills.
Another thing that I really appreciate in research is the fact that you work on unresolved
problems and you have to be innovative in order to propose new tools. This is very
ςτtivatiσμ!
(p11a)
In summary, the reasons for choosing a career in research range from the
romantic desire for conquest of truth, establishing power, wealth, power and profit,
understanding the mystery and contact with new worlds all the way to the earning the
affection of a role model professor . We conclude that there are no good or bad
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motives, but in any case, they are not neutral. The issue of whether and how science is
affected from these is yet to be reached.
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