European Journal of Education Studies
ISSN: 2501 - 1111
ISSN-L: 2501 - 1111
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
Volume 3 │ Issue 3 │ 2017
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.321557
BUILDING AND SUSTAINING GLOBALLY COMPETITIVE
HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS: TRANSFORMING
EDUCATION THROUGH INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS
Harriet Wambui Njuii
Riara University, Nairobi, Kenya
Abstract:
This paper reviews literature on inclusive learning with a view to making
recommendations on the strategies that teachers and stakeholders in education should
employ to ensure that their learning institutions are aligned to globally accepted
education standards. The paper will specifically focus on teaching strategies that
enhance inclusiveness in classroom learning. Inclusive classrooms are critical if learning
institutions are to adequately nurture learners with the skills and competences needed
in the 21st century industry such as critical thinking, problem-solving and innovation. It
is hoped that this review will shed light to education practitioners on the critical factors
that contribute to individual learner s enjoyment of their right to quality education as
they go through the teaching-learning process. The paper recommends that an
empirical research be carried out in universities in Kenya to determine whether they
embrace the principles of inclusive learning in classroom discourse and the inculcation
of the appropriate skills.
Keywords:
inclusive
learning;
inclusive
classroom;
effective
quality learning
environments; Kenya
1. Introduction
The concept of inclusion was conceived in 1948 with the declaration adopted by the UN
General ‚ssembly on the International ‛ill of Rights which recognizes that all human
beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. The fundamental role of human
rights education is expressed in international and regional instruments and documents
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved.
© 2015 – 2017 Open Access Publishing Group
400
Harriet Wambui Njui
BUILDING AND SUSTAINING GLOBALLY COMPETITIVE HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS:
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dealing with human rights education including treaties, covenants, conventions and
protocols; charters; declarations; recommendations; decisions; resolutions; principles;
guidelines; rules; commitments; joint communiqués of intergovernmental meetings,
congresses and conferences.
The instruments and documents recommend that a learning process should
encompass various dimensions such as knowledge and skills that learners can put into
practice in daily life; values and attitudes -developing values and reinforcing attitudes
which uphold human rights; and behaviour, action which entails encouraging,
defending and promoting human rights (United Nations Human Rights, Part I. United
Nations Instruments and Documents on Human Rights Education (2014)]
www.ohchr.org/.../Education). This holistic approach to education tends to be
compromised at virtually all levels of learning in Kenya s -4-4 system of education due
to the high premium placed on examinations and certification. The situation has
influenced a narrow approach to education whose focus is on the cognitive dimension
of education at the expense of the others namely normative, creative and dialogical
dimensions. It is critical that education in Kenya is aligned to the recommendation in
the instruments and documents in order to produce competent graduates who can
adequately compete for international jobs.
2. The Concept of Inclusive Education
Rodriguez-Falcon, Evans, Allam, Barrett & Forrest (2010) argue that inclusive education
is a commitment to educate each child to the maximum extent appropriate to his/her
potential. It entails developing and designing schools, classrooms, programs and
activities in a way that all students learn and participate together. This requires setting
suitable learning challenges for all learners, responding to their diverse learning needs,
listening to every child no matter who they are and where they are from; and
promoting cohesive co-existence of different cultures. It is the acceptance of all people
regardless of their differences, appreciating people for who they are and their
competences and allowing them to value the differences in each other by appreciating
that
individual
are
unique
in
their
own
creativity
(EENET,
www.eenet.org.uk/what_is_ie.php). Inclusion requires that the child will benefit from
being in the class rather than having to keep up with the other students (Wisconsin
Education
Association
Council,
2001
in
www.faculty.uml.edu/darcus/01.505/NASET_social_inclusion).
Inclusion also entails creating an enabling environment that provides for the
acceptance of children to play and interact without any prejudices. To this end, United
Nations International laws require governments of all its signatories (Kenya is a
signatory) to exercise fairness and justice to its citizens and build an inclusive society
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BUILDING AND SUSTAINING GLOBALLY COMPETITIVE HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS:
TRANSFORMING EDUCATION THROUGH INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS
where all citizens have equal opportunities to education without discrimination on the
basis of gender, ethnic origin, language, religion, nationality, social origin, economic
condition and ability. According citizens equal right to education is critical because,
education is a fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all other
human rights. It promotes individual freedom and empowerment and yields important
development benefits (UNESCO. www.unesco.org/new/right2education). This leads to
the question of whether learning institutions in Kenya are aligned with the laws in their
pursuit for education. In particular, to what extent do universities embrace the laws in
their education agenda?
To effectively implement the international laws at the classroom level, teachers
need to understand the varied differences among learners and treat them fairly as
unique individuals in order to optimize their achievements in education. This is
important because ach learner is different in many aspects. For instance, in a standard
classroom, learners differ in physical, intellectual, emotional and psychological
attributes. They also present themselves in varied abilities academic-above average,
average and below average (Kiruhi, Githua and Mboroki, 2009). Differences in learner
abilities demand that teachers creatively select varied engaging teaching approaches,
learning activities and assessments to ensure that all learners benefit from the teachinglearning experiences without discrimination.
Inclusive education is however not an exclusive task for teachers. It rather
demands that all stakeholders including students, families, educators and community
members work together to create schools and other social institutions with a culture of
acceptance, belonging and community. Such a culture establishes collaboration,
supportive and nurturing environment for learners and gives them services and the
accommodation they need to learn and also mentors them in respecting and learning
from each other s individual differences. ‚re institutions of learning in Kenya inclusive
to this extent?
Recent incidences of ethnic violence in County universities raise doubts on the
question of inclusivity in learning institutions in Kenya. The incidences include Maasai
Mara University dispute over a football match between two ethnic groups (Sayagi, Dec
1, 2015. http://nairobinews.nation.co.ke/news/shame-as-university-is-shut-over-ethnicchaos-among-students/) cases of politicians leading villagers to attack learning
institutions
including
Kabianga,
Karatina
and
Eldoret
universities
(www.standardmedia.co.ke Feb 19, 2015); ethnic animosity in University of Eldoret
(www.nation.co.ke/counties/lecturers-call.../-/index.html Daily Nation Feb 20, 2015)
where locals demanded that a person from their locality heads the institution; and the
latest protest of a section of North Rift leaders over appointment of Moi University
acting Vice-Chancellor on the reason that they preferred a local candidate from the
County for the appointment (newsdesk@ke.nationmedia.com. Wednesday, September
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BUILDING AND SUSTAINING GLOBALLY COMPETITIVE HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS:
TRANSFORMING EDUCATION THROUGH INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS
21, 2016). The incidences indicate that public institutions in Kenya are ethnicized, a fact
confirmed by the National Cohesion and Integration Commission (NCIC) report on
ethicization in Pubic Higher Institutions of learning (newsdesk@ke.nationmedia.com.
Wednesday, September 21, 2016). In part, the report indicates that over 80% of public
institutions have bleached the law of appointment with regard to representation of
different ethnic groups in Kenya. To this end, the chairman of NCIC lamented that the
negative ethnic issues in the report contravened devolution spirit.
Negative ethnicity breeds threats to security that have dire negative implications
to learning as both learners and teachers need a secure and cohesive environment
where all individuals have a feeling of belonging. The incidences above suggest that
County Universities could influence regionalism in education which may lead to the
dilution of the universal attribute of a university where learners from all regions
(locally, nationally and internationally) are expected to converge in pursuit of truth.
Religious radicalization is also currently working negatively on inclusivity as schools
may be reluctant to admit learners affiliated to different religions due to fear of
escalation of violence and related insecurity. To effectively nurture respect of different
religions, ethnic groups, races, culture and abilities, learning institutions should
embrace the principles of inclusion. This is one way of enhancing achievement of unity
among students and staff that can serve as a platform to equip learners with values and
attitudes that will enable them fit well in the modern interconnected society with
people of diverse backgrounds and creeds.
Inclusion aligns with the principles of education for sustainable development
(ESD) which considers culture as an essential additional and underlying dimension to
the three pillars of sustainable development namely society, environment and economy.
Embracing these elements in a holistic and integrated manner, ESD enables all
individuals to fully develop the knowledge, perspectives, values and skills necessary to
take part in decisions to improve the quality of life both locally and globally on terms
which are most relevant to their daily lives (‛hawani Venkataraman,
. Kenya s
sixth and seventh national goals of education envisage an inclusive nation. The goals
respectively seek to promote national unity; respect for and development of Kenya's
rich and varied cultures; and to foster international consciousness to nurture positive
attitudes towards other nations as Kenya is part of the complicated and interdependent
network of the interconnected world (Policies/ National Goals Of Education
www.kenya.elimu.net/.../Education (Dec. 2007).
Values are critical to the delivery of quality education and sustainable
development. To this end, Kenya s education policy documents emphasize the need to
inculcate and equip learners with desirable values such as patriotism, equality, honesty,
humility, mutual respect, and high moral standards (Government of Kenya, 2012:12).
Teachers have an obligation to nurture these values as they interact with learners in and
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TRANSFORMING EDUCATION THROUGH INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS
out of the classroom. If learners are to acquire the needed life skills that equip them to
successfully cope with life in the inclusive local, national and global society, it is
imperative that institutions of learning integrate values in education. However,
contrary to this, research shows that teachers in primary and secondary schools in
Kenya do not consider inculcation of values to learners a priority (Wamahiu, 2015).
Rather, the schools are concerned about transmitting knowledge to learners and
preparing them to pass national examinations with high scores. Is the situation in
universities different? Are values integrated in the university curricula and supported
by school structures? To answer these questions satisfactorily, this paper recommends
that an empirical study is carried out in universities.
Kenya s education policy documents including the Kenya Constitution 2010 and
Education Act, 2013 have clear policies that uphold inclusion of all learners and the
need to integrate values in education. However, despite the policies, Wamahiu (2015)
asserts that some school practices, policies and rules are exclusionary, targeting learners
from minority groups or those who are different from others. In addition, most schools
do not comply with the government policy on inclusive schools. For instance,
infrastructure and facilities for learners with disabilities are missing, sometimes due to
lack of understanding of what equity, equality and inclusion, and non-discrimination
concepts entail (Wamahiu, 2015).
It is critical that teachers, education partners and stakeholders are informed and
sensitized on the significant role of inclusive education in achieving quality and
transformative education as well as sustainable development. This is paramount
because any form of exclusion of learners from classroom processes and school
activities (Physical, psychological, emotional or social) impacts negatively on education
as the learners are denied their right to quality and holistic education.
However, despite the benefits of inclusive education brought out in this paper,
the subject of inclusion is relatively controversial for many parents and educators,
particularly in the area of including children with disabilities in standard classrooms.
Those against it argue that integrating disabled learners slows down the pace of
learning resulting to wasting time for normal learners (Salend, 2001). This controversy
notwithstanding, there is need for education partners to explore the subject with a view
to tapping its numerous benefits and employing them in learning institutions for the
purpose of improving education delivery to learners. Effective inclusion is known to
improve the educational system for all students regardless of their learning ability, race,
linguistic ability, economic status, gender, learning style, ethnicity, cultural
background, religion, family structure and sexual orientation (Salend 2001 in
www.faculty.uml.edu/darcus/01.505/NASET_social_inclusion.pdf). Educators should
tap from such benefits in order to quality in education.
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The following section discusses the principles of inclusive learning namely
diversity, acceptance of individual needs and differences, effective and high-quality
learning environments, gender- sensitivity, collaboration and reflection.
2.1 Diversity
Merriam-Webster (www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diversity) defines diversity
as the condition of having or being composed of differing elements such as the
inclusion of people of different races or cultures in a group or organization. In a school,
diversity might be in form of learning ability, race, linguistic ability, economic status,
gender, learning style, ethnicity, cultural background and religion, family structure and
sexual orientation (Salend, 2001). Inclusion demands that teachers embrace diversity by
nurturing learners with democratic principles, intercultural understanding, respect and
peace at all levels of society and other values that enhance human relationships.
Teaching learners about cultures and religions for instance influences them to
appreciate differences among cultures and religions and to also acquire religious
tolerance. Inclusion entails that schools welcome, acknowledge, affirm and celebrate all
learners, educate them in high quality appropriate classrooms, respond to individual
learner needs, provide learners with opportunities to learn and play together and
participate in educational, social and recreational activities. It also demands that schools
establish practices that promote acceptance, equity, collaboration and responsiveness to
learners individual needs, treating them as individuals and protecting them from
prejudices (Salend, 2001, p. 6).
To what extent have learning institutions in Kenya embraced the principles of
diversity? Notably, schools in Kenya present themselves in different categories that
mirror the social layers of the society namely high, middle and low class. For instance,
secondary schools are categorized into public, private, national, provincial and county
schools and each category is endowed differently in terms of infrastructure and
resources with Private and National schools enjoying better facilities than the Provincial
and County schools. In addition, public schools and public universities have huge
classes that do not render themselves to employment of interactive teaching approaches
compared to private schools which deliberately restrict the number of students per class
with a view to enhancing individualized learning. This entails that student in private
and national schools have opportunities to perform better in national examinations and
this opens to them opportunities for degree programmes of their choice while those in
provincial and county schools struggle with meagre resources.
Embracing diversity further demands providing learners with opportunities to
locate and discover other people and experience of shared purposes in life,
development of knowledge and understanding of self and others, appreciation of the
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TRANSFORMING EDUCATION THROUGH INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS
diversity of the human race, and creating awareness of the similarities between, and the
interdependence of, all humans (Wisconsin Education Council).
This entails that a school does not exclude, discriminate, or stereotype learners
on the basis of difference. It rather respects diversity, ensures equality of learning for all
learners without discrimination, and provides free and compulsory education that is
affordable and accessible, especially to families and children at risk. The school is
expected to respond to diversity by meeting the differing circumstances and needs
of children based on gender, social class, ethnicity, and ability level as well as teaching
them to appreciate diversity and to value and learn from each other s similarities and
differences. (Salend, 2001 & Nanzhao, www.ibe.unesco.org/cops/.../PillarsLearning).
Notably, education in Kenya is still not affordable to the low cadre of the society,
despite the government s offer of free primary education and partially free secondary
education. Many parents are unable to pay for basic items like uniform and other
personal needs including soap, tooth paste and sanitary towels for the upkeep of the
learner. Girls from deprived families continue to miss school for about a week every
month due to lack of sanitary towels, not to mention that they are also bogged up with
too much of domestic chores compared to boys.
However, the government has made interventions in some areas in an attempt to
enhance equity and access to education. For instance, in an attempt to enhance equity,
the government has an affirmative action on university admission of the disabled and
the girl child with a lower mark than that of the disabled and boy child respectively.
Girls are also admitted to courses dominated by men such as engineering and
architecture with a lower mark than boys in order to motivate them.
In addition, embracing diversity entails empathy and cooperative social behavior
in caring and sharing; respect for other people, their cultures and value systems;
capability of encountering others and resolving conflicts through dialogue and
competency
in
working
towards
common
objectives
(Nanzhao,
www.ibe.unesco.org/cops/.../PillarsLearning). Learning institutions can nurture values
of diversity through strategies such as use of learning resources that reflect accurate
images of diverse peoples without stereotypes (such as biased articles, illustrations and
photos); establishing practices that promote acceptance, equity, collaboration and
responsiveness to learners individual needs; and treating learners as individuals and
protecting them from prejudices. If a learning institution is to enhance a feeling of
worthiness, belongingness and confidence, it is imperative that bias and stereotypes are
avoided. This is critical because equality and equity in education is all about fairness to
all human beings regardless of gender, race and religion. (Wisconsin Education
Council).
Learning institutions in Kenya and other African countries are yet to achieve the
aspects of inclusive education described above. For instance, institutions are still
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TRANSFORMING EDUCATION THROUGH INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS
grappling with issues such as gender equity; appreciation of different ethnic groups
and religions. In addition, textbooks at various levels of learning are still engendered,
depicting the male child as superior. Furthermore, cultural practices in many ethnic
groups still view a female as the weak gender while some force girls to marry at a
tender age or require them to undergo female genital mutilation and this leads them to
dropping out of school (Kibera and Kimokoti, 2007). These and other challenges play
against inclusion and in effect, right to education for all.
2.2 Acceptance of Individual Needs and Differences
Effective inclusion involves sensitivity to and acceptance of individual needs and
differences. To achieve this, educators must take into account the factors that shape
learners into unique individuals and also affect their academic performance and
socialization (such as economic status, gender, cultural backgrounds and disability).
They must value all learners as individuals who are capable of learning and
contributing to society. Inclusive classrooms demand that teachers select learning
activities that are within the abilities and interests of individual learners; involve
learners in planning the lesson, writing lesson objectives, selecting learning activities
and in lesson reflection and encourage them to initiate ideas and creatively come up
with solutions to problems through transfer of knowledge gained in school experience
(Salend, 2001 & Wisconsin Education Council).
This principle resonates with modern pedagogical practices which place learners
at the centre of learning and embrace the gifts they bring to class. With their different
strengths, learners in an inclusive classroom are enabled to create a community of
learners in a school. Nurturing a community in the classroom is beneficial because
variety is a reminder of the interdependence of human beings if they are to live
cohesively as a society. In addition, classroom community enhances collaborative
learning which helps learners to acquire soft skills and competences beyond the
prescribed curriculum such as leadership, teamwork, communication, negotiation,
creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving, initiative, curiosity, life and career skills,
ability to navigate the environment, lifelong learning, self- efficacy, citizenship, problem
solving and innovation, respect and cohesive living (Wisconsin Education Council, P21,
Partnership for 21st Century Learning. www.p21.org, Scott, 2015) ). These are the skills
the 21st century industry is looking for in graduates over and above their academic
qualifications. Learning institutions should ensure that they equip learners well for the
demands of the modern dynamic world.
Despite the strengths associated with collaborative teaching and learning
approaches recommended for inclusive classrooms, teachers may not opt for them due
to factors beyond their control. When the syllabuses are too broad, teachers opt to
transmit information to learners in order to cover the content within the prescribed
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TRANSFORMING EDUCATION THROUGH INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS
time. The choice of teaching approaches is also influenced by restricted time allocations
for subjects, curriculum content, spatial arrangements and the expectations of learners,
parents and staff (Weimer, 2002).
In Kenya for instance, the high premium given to examination and certification
has subjected teachers to pressure for high achievement from learners, parents and the
school management (Njui, 2010). If education in Kenya is to shift from the emphases of
teaching learners to learn to teach them how to learn, reforms in education must
replace the Western model of education with a model that is relevant to Kenya s
context. This paradigm shift is critical if education is to equip learners with the skills
and competences that will enable them to cope with the pace of change dictated by the
st century to avoid what Toffler
refers to as the future shock . Scott (2015)
recommends a model of learning for the 21st century based on motivation, specific
competences and skills needed to function effectively in the 21st century. She maintains
that formal education must be transformed to enable the new forms of learning needed
to tackle the complex global challenges ahead, but she warns that there is no single
prescribed approach to educating learners in the 21st century. She proposes a multiple
approach in context noting that there are growing concerns about potential economic
and global crisis ahead which lead to questions whether today s learners possess the
needed skills such as Communication, Collaboration, Critical thinking, Creativity,
Personal skills (initiative, resilience, responsibility, risk-taking); Social skills (teamwork, networking, empathy and compassion) among others, necessary to tackle the
unexpected developments they will face. This demands that learning institutions align
their education to the needs of the modern dynamic world for to ensure that they are
producing relevant graduates for the 21st industry and beyond. Universities should
spearhead such reforms in education.
2.3 Effective and High-Quality Learning Environment
Nanzhao (2009) describes an effective learning environment as one which offers
individualized instruction employing active, cooperative, and democratic teaching
approaches with structured content and quality learning resources. This entails that
learners are meaningfully engaged in learning activities by teachers who are
empowered and motivated to offer them quality education. Such an environment is
created by teaching that meets learners needs. Effective learning environments
demands that schools have well trained teachers and enhances teacher capacity
(through regular in-service training), morale, commitment, status, income and
recognition of child rights. It also promotes quality learning outcomes-defining and
helping learners learn what they need to learn and teaching them how to learn. The
environment further adapts and integrates classroom teaching appropriately to
accommodate learner contexts; taking cognizance of the hidden curriculum and its
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influence to learning and creates a school culture and a learning environment in which
individual learners thrive and unleash their potential (UNESCO, 2009; Nanzhao,
www.ibe.unesco.org/cops/Competencies/PillarsLearningZhou.pdf & Akoto, 2009).
Improving teachers training, conditions of service and deployment; and offering
teachers ample professional development opportunities is critical because Education
2030 Sustainable Development Goal includes a target on teachers as a key means of its
implementation (UNESCO and UNICEF 2013a, p. 5) cited by Scott (2015). What is the
status of training of teachers in learning institutions? Are teachers regularly enhanced
with capacity building and motivated? Are the teaching methods used by teachers
capable of nurturing the 21st century skills? Are classrooms in our institutions inclusive?
These questions can only be answered through an empirical study of learning
institutions. It is hoped that this paper will be followed by an empirical study intended
to establish whether the teaching strategies employed in universities in Kenyan are
inclusive.
Effective learning environments require teachers to develop learners holistically;
provide them with interesting learning opportunities; enhance their motivation and
confidence; provide those incentives and networks as well as adequate resources and
technology. The environment should be healthy, hygienic, safe, inclusive and free (with
adequate water and sanitation facilities and healthy classrooms, healthy policies,
practices, health services; and life skills-based health education). Further, the
environment promote the physical and the psycho-socio-emotional health of teachers
and learners. The environment defends and protects learners from abuse and harm as
well as provides them with positive experiences. It uses flexible curricula, assessments
and examinations. It also uses varied learning modalities to appeal to different learning
styles- visual, auditory and kinesthetic. It groups learners with mixed abilities;
accommodates those with disabilities (visual and physical) and diversifies the
educational
experience
of
all
students
(UNESCO,
2009;
Nanzhao,
www.ibe.unesco.org/cops/Competencies/PillarsLearningZhou.pdf & Akoto, 2009).
However, providing effective and high quality learning environments is a
challenge in most learning institutions in Kenya (including universities) due to lack of
teacher capacity. This is influenced by poor teacher training programmes, lack of inservice courses for teacher and lack of basic learning resources including textbooks
(Bishop, 1985 cited by Njui, 2010). The government should invest in teacher education
to enhance teacher capacity in both pre-service and in-service training to enable them to
adequately provide effective learning environments for learners. Teacher motivational
incentives should also be facilitated to enhance their morale and commitment.
Other ways of enhancing effective learning environment include proving learner
academic support in order to help individuals access the full curriculum (by putting in
place ramps, escape points in case of fire and assistive technology such as braille);
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providing behavioural support (positive learning environment that embraces valuebased education); having manageable student-teacher ratios; enhancing flexible pacing
and grouping (appropriate standards and objectives across curriculum) and making
interventions for vulnerable learners such as providing work study, scholarship and
bursary
as
needs
arise
(UNESCO,
2009;
Nanzhao,
www.ibe.unesco.org/cops/Competencies/PillarsLearningZhou.pdf& Akoto, 2009).
There are numerous benefits in providing effective and high quality
environments described above. Research shows that learners are more likely to stay in
school and succeed academically when teachers actively engage them in the learning
process and when they present them with interesting learning opportunities. In
addition, the active learner participation in learning demanded by an inclusive
environment reflects not only a child-centered approach to pedagogy; but also the
principle of democratic participation. This prepares learners for what is expected of
them in a democratic society. As Nanzhao (2009) observes, the classroom process
should not be one in which children are passive recipients of knowledge dispensed by
the teacher. It should rather be an interactive process in which children actively
participate in varied learning activities
It is worth noting that many public institutions in Kenya face major challenges in
providing effective and high quality learning environments due to unmanageable huge
classes with overstretched facilities as witnessed in Public Universities. The institutions
also lack sufficient infrastructure, basic learning resources like textbooks and sufficient
numbers of qualified staff in virtually all disciplines. This is compounded by
knowledge gaps among teachers and faculty in their disciplines of specialization.
2.4 Gender-sensitivity
Inclusive learning institutions promote gender equality in enrolment and achievement;
guarantee girl-friendly facilities; eliminate gender stereotypes in curricula, textbooks,
and teaching learning processes; socialize girls and boys in a non-violent environment
and encourage respect for others' rights, dignity, and equality (UNICEF, 2009).
Achievement of these ideals is a major task due to cultural barriers. For instance, some
cultural practices among some African communities including forced early marriages
and Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) impede gender equity in education as they
influence girls to be married at a very tender age, meaning that they either drop out of
school or fail to enroll in the next higher level.
However, the government has put in place some intervention measures such as
building boarding schools in the affected areas to salvage girls from the negative
cultural practices and advocacy to sensitize the communities on the negative
implications of FGM and forced marriages. Enforcement of policies and penalties
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against child abuse through such and other negative cultural practices is imperative if
girls are to enjoy equal rights to education with the boys.
2.5 Collaboration
Effective inclusion involves collaboration among educators, other professionals,
students, families, and community agencies to ensure that learners realize their rights to
education. They all work cooperatively and reflectively, sharing resources,
responsibilities, skills, decisions, and advocacy with the welfare of the child at the
center. An inclusive school promotes learner participation in all aspects of school life. It
strengthens families as the child's primary caregivers and educators and helps children,
parents, and teachers establish harmonious relationships. It also provides support,
training, time and resources to help the partners work collaboratively to address
learners needs Salend,
, p. . An attempt of collaboration among teachers, parents
and learners in primary and secondary schools is observable through parent teacher
associations where parents partner with teachers and students to improve the welfare
of students. However, parents in most public schools, particularly in rural and informal
settlement areas (referred to as slums) do not visualize the significance of the
collaborations. In addition, most public learning institutions in Kenya, particularly
universities have scarce resources to enhance cooperative learning. The available few
are overstretched by huge numbers of students per class.
United Nations International Children Fund (UNICEF) proposes a prototype of
an inclusive school noting that an inclusive classroom environment adapts UNICEF s
characteristics of a Child-Friendly School (CFS). A CFS views children as natural
learners whose capacity to learn can be undermined and sometimes destroyed. The
school recognizes, encourages and supports children's capacities as learners by
providing a school culture, teaching behaviours and child-centered curriculum content.
It also develops a conducive learning environment that enhances learner motivation to
learn and ensures that staff members are friendly and welcoming to children (Akoto,
2009). Although the characteristics of a CFS outlined above are with reference to young
children, they can be adapted by universities and other levels of learning in context to
enhance effective learning and to ensure that individual learner s right to quality
education is not jeopardized.
2.6 Reflection
To reflect is to think deeply or carefully about something or to give careful
consideration to something. Effective inclusion requires teachers to constantly reflect on
their teaching and routinely examine their own practices for self-improvement and to
ensure that all learners needs are met. This helps them to modify their attitudes as they
think critically about their values and beliefs, modify teaching and classroom
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management practices, and curricula to accommodate individual needs. It also helps
them to become flexible, responsive, and aware of learners needs Wisconsin Education
Council, Salend, 2001). Teachers should guide learners to reflect on what they learn
through journaling and relating what they learn to real life experiences. This enables
them to internalize what they learn and to also apply the knowledge learned to solve
problems.
While reflection is a sure way of improving teaching practice by continuously
informing teachers on the direction to take for better results in education, it may not
serve its purpose in most public institutions in Kenya, particularly public universities
where classes are too huge, facilities overstretched and resources too meagre. There is
an urgent need to align the student-faculty ratio with the Commission for University
Education, Kenya, Standard Guidelines for resources (2014) if education at this level is
to embrace this and other principles of inclusive learning.
3. Learning in Inclusive Classrooms
In an inclusive classroom, learners are involved in creating their classroom rules and
they are expected to meet expectations of the same. Teachers involve them in planning
curricula activities, taking cognizance of their different learning styles (Rodriguez,
Evans, Allam, Barrett & Forrest, 2010). Involving learners in curriculum decisions is
particularly critical in universities because at this level of education, they are familiar
with the content in their specific disciplines. Hence, they can make sensible suggestions
with appropriate guidance by the faculty. Learners views could enrich curriculum by
either removing content overlaps across various programmes or beefing up some areas
that may be shallow.
Involving learners in decisions concerning their education resonates with
modern pedagogical practices which require them to take full responsibility of their
learning in order to get the full benefit of education. In addition, taking cognizance of
the differences in learning styles ensures that learning is conveyed in a way that best
suits each learner. Lessons are also adapted and integrated in the learner context to
make
learning
understandable
and
meaningful
(www.abilitypath.org/.../learning.../learning...styles/.../childrens-learning-s....).
Inclusive education requires schools to take cognizance of the hidden curriculum
and its influence on learning. This requires them to create a school culture and a
conducive learning environment in which learners thrive as they alleviate potential
barriers to learning and assessment (Wisconsin Education Council). To enhance a
positive influence of the hidden curriculum, it is imperative that learning institutions
embrace total quality management style to ensure that every department meets and
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exceeds customer expectations (Teklemariam, 2009, p. 49). This is a sure way of making
a learning environment conducive. CONT
Inclusion also demands that teachers employ varied teaching approaches such as
group discussions, role play and projects in order to address learners different learning
styles; personalize attention to meet learners individual needs and individualize
education for all learners in assessment, curriculum accessibility, technology and
physical design adaptations on the basis of their needs and abilities. Such approaches
entail that learning takes place in small groups with peers helping and supporting each
other with meaningful learner interactions which are focused on curricular expectations
(www.abilitypath.org/.../learning.../learning...styles/.../childrens-learning-s....).
The approaches align with the 21st century view of the learner which has shifted
from seeing one as a young person who goes to school to receive learning, pass
examinations, and receive grades and graduate. Rather, the learner is viewed in a new
context which entails maintaining their interest by helping them to see how what they
are learning prepares them for life in the real world; instilling curiosity for learning (a
fundamental factor in enhancing lifelong learning); offering teaching in a flexible
manner and exciting them to become resourceful so that they will continue to learn
outside the formal school and classroom environments (P21, Partnership for 21st
Century Learning. www.p21.org).Teachers should also personalize teaching as learners
differ physically, emotionally, cognitively and in personality. This ensures fairness to all
students and also enables them to individually unleash their potential as they go
through the teaching-learning process.
However, while individualization of learning is critical in inclusive learning and
an ideal road map to learner transformation, numerous factors impede its
implementation in developing countries. In Kenya for instance, basic resources that
enhance curriculum delivery are meagre. Research indicates that teachers are forced to
dictate notes to learners in some schools due to lack of textbooks (Njui, 2010). In
addition, teachers in public schools and universities deal with huge classes that do not
render themselves to individualized learning due to very high teacher: student ratios.
Employment of interactive teaching approaches is also a major challenge because
teachers have to wrestle with the prescribed curriculum which appears generally
overloaded in all subjects. As a result, they opt for transmission teaching approaches
(including lecture, note dictation and drill) to help them cover the scope of content
within the stipulated time (Njui, 2010) to ensure that they prepare learners adequately
for national examinations. Also, most teachers do not integrate technology in teaching
as they do not have the skills needed to operationalize it. This is compounded by the
fact that most schools, particularly in rural areas have not yet installed technology.
Research by Uwezo, Kenya (2011) indicates that the above challenges have
significantly compromised quality in education to an extent that learners have major
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gaps in literacy, numeracy and life skills at various stages of education in Kenya. It is
little wonder that the debate on lack of employability skills by university graduates is
still alive. A solution to this problem requires radical reforms in teacher education to
ensure that teachers are adequately trained and facilitated with regular capacity
building programmes in order to enhance their effectiveness in curriculum delivery.
Effectiveness also requires teachers to create a classroom culture that is conducive to
quality learning. The following section briefly discusses different types of classroom
culture and the implication of each to learning.
3.1 Class Culture and Implications to Effective Quality Learning
Jacobsen, Eggen & Kauchak (1993, p.269) identify three types of classroom social
organization used by teachers namely competitive, cooperative and individualistic.
Each influences the class culture in a certain direction. The Competitive pattern of
organization stresses individual excellence and achievement that urges learners to do
better than their peers, to reach higher for a better position on the academic ladder. In
this pattern, the teacher is the initiator and director of the learning tasks and sets the
pace of the class based on the average or slightly above average ability level in the class.
This culture implies that low achievers suffer neglect and exclusion, thus, their right to
education is jeopardized as the class pace does not incorporate them.
On the other hand, cooperative pattern of organization stresses learners working
together on problems where all members of a group are considered important and
capable of making unique contributions regardless of their ability levels. Learners are
encouraged to set group goals and tasks, to divide and assign work equitably, to listen
to all view points and to weigh alternative solutions. They are also expected to
participate in various tasks which call for creativity, initiative, and application of
previous knowledge to the present situation, organization and evaluation. In this
pattern, the teacher assumes the role of a facilitator who asks for, listens to, and uses
learners ideas in planning instructional activities. Research in cooperative social
organization indicates increased learner achievement and improved relationships
between learners of different ethnic backgrounds, sexes and academic abilities (Slavin,
1990) cited by Jacobsen, Eggen & Kauchak (1993, p.270). Thus, the pattern is inclusive.
Teachers should explore this pattern in order to assist individual learners to achieve
their right to education.
Individualistic pattern involves learners working at their own levels and paces to
achieve cognitive tasks. They are expected to follow directions, accept repetitive
practice (drill), and interpret self-evaluations. In this pattern, the teacher is the director,
diagnosing and placing learners at their correct levels, evaluating and encouraging
progress, and serving as a source of information. Learners work alone at individual
tasks which may be different from that of their peers. The objective of this pattern is
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mastery of cognitive material, with steady progress. Exclusive use of this pattern
confines learning to the cognitive dimension and influences learners to solely depend
on the teacher to transmit knowledge to them through lecture. Thus, the individualistic
pattern influences a narrow approach to education. This poses a major concern because
education is a multi-dimensional activity that cannot be confined to one dimension.
Njoroge and Bennaars (2000) argue that if an activity is to qualify to be called education,
it must fulfill four dimensions namely the cognitive, the normative, the creative and the
dialogical dimensions. This holistic view of education should be pursued at all levels of
learning if education is to offer transformation to the learner.
Jacobsen, Eggen & Kauchak (1993) observe that real classrooms use a
combination of the three patterns above. The decision on choice of pattern like other
considerations in teaching depends on factors like teacher s style and curriculum goals.
This paper recommends an integration of the three patterns with a bias on cooperative
pattern because of its ability to engage learners meaningfully in collaborative activities
that enhance inclusion of all learners in the teaching-learning process.
The following section discusses the four pillars of learning outlined by United
Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) namely learning
to know, learning to do, learning to be and learning to live together (NanZhao,
www.ibe.unesco.org/cops/Competencies/PillarsLearningZhou). It also attempts to show
how each pillar relates to inclusive learning.
Learning to know entails providing the cognitive tools required to better
comprehend the world and its complexities, and to provide an appropriate and
adequate foundation for future learning. This differs from acquiring knowledge
through the traditional mode of knowledge transmission to passive learners who
reproduce the knowledge gained through memorization. It emphasizes the
development of the faculties of memory, imagination, reasoning, problem-solving, and
the ability to think in a coherent and critical way through discovery learning. This
provides learners an opportunity to experience the pleasure of knowing, discovering
and understanding new knowledge. Learning to know also enables individual learners
to understand various subjects including nature, humankind and its history, human
environment
and
society
at
large
(NanZhao,
www.ibe.unesco.org/cops/Competencies/PillarsLearningZhou).
Discovery learning has the advantage of involving learners actively in what they
learn. It also helps them to explore what they learn at their pace through the guidance
of the teacher. This enhances individualization of learning, ensuring that all learners
gain from the teaching learning experience. Discovery learning does not only nurture
learners with skills and competencies beyond the stipulated curriculum (including
problem solving, organization, observation, creativity and critical thinking), it also
enhances inclusion as learners are facilitated to learn at their individual pace. If learning
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institutions in Kenya are to offer globally competitive education for sustainable
development and also achieve the aspirations of an industrialized society envisaged by
Kenya s Vision
, it is imperative that that the transmission mode of curriculum
delivery is replaced with learning modes that involve learners through the learning
process and provide opportunities for them to discover new knowledge.
Learning to do demands that individuals are provided with the skills that would
enable them to effectively participate in the global economy and society. The skills
include vocational, technical, work and others which are beyond defined skills
development in the curriculum. It entails nurturing learners with skills such as ability to
communicate effectively with others, team work, interpersonal relations, adaptability to
change in the world of work and in social life, competency in transforming knowledge
into innovations and job-creation, and a readiness to take risks and resolve or manage
conflicts (NanZhao, www.ibe.unesco.org/cops/Competencies/PillarsLearningZhou).
The skills resonate well with the current global industry competency demands outlined
in the 21st Century Skills Framework (Howland, Johassen & Marra, 2012, p. 12-13).
Adequate preparation of learners for the 21 st century industry demands a paradigm
shift from the Western transmission model of education to one that engages learners in
cooperative and collaborative learning activities that yield quality and transformative
education.
Learning to be entails providing individual learners with self-analytical and
social skills to enable them develop an all-round complete person physically,
psychologically, socially and emotionally to their fullest individual potential. This
broad development of learners demands that a curriculum should cultivate qualities of
imagination and creativity; acquire universally shared human values; develop aspects
of a person s potential memory, reasoning, aesthetic sense, physical capacity and
communication skills); develop critical thinking and exercise independent judgment;
and
develop
personal
commitment
and
responsibility
(NanZhao,
www.ibe.unesco.org/cops/Competencies/PillarsLearningZhou). The need for holistic
quality education provided for by this pillar cannot be overemphasized because
education is a multidimensional activity as explained above. Reforms in education are
imperative if learning institutions are to help individual learners to realize their right to
quality education for their transformation.
Learning to live together demands that individuals are exposed to the values
that enable them and societies live in peace and harmony. The values include human
rights, democratic principles, intercultural understanding and respect, and peace at all
levels of society and human relationships. Learning to live together also implies that
education provides learners with opportunities to locate and discover other people and
experience of shared purposes in life. This entails the development of knowledge and
understanding of self and others; appreciation of the diversity of the human race and an
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awareness of the similarities between, and the interdependence of, all humans; empathy
and cooperative social behavior in caring and sharing; respect of other people and their
cultures and value systems; capability of encountering others and resolving conflicts
through dialogue; and competency in working towards common objectives (NanZhao,
www.ibe.unesco.org/cops/Competencies/PillarsLearningZhou).
This pillar highlights the desirable values that education should develop in
learners in order to equip them with the tools they need for survival in an
interconnected world as they interact with people of different races and religions.
However, cohesive living is not confined to the global context. It is also critical at other
levels where different people live and work together including classrooms, schools,
local communities, towns and cities. Living together cohesively for the different ethnic
groups in Kenya has been a major challenge. Since the 2007 contested presidential polls
in Kenya, there has been prevalence of negative ethnicity that has significantly escalated
to higher institutions of learning where the local communities have continued to
demand that the management of a County University should be led by one of their
own. This implies that County Universities are yet to embrace diversity. If inclusivity is
to be achieved in learning institutions in Kenya, it is imperative that curricula integrate
and deliberately nurture the values of an inclusive society at all levels of learning. The
diagram below represents the author s visualization of inclusive learning which she
refers to as constructs of inclusive learning.
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Interventions for vulnerable
learners
Subsidizing education and
other hidden costs
Free &compulsory educ.
Providing Nutrition
Physical infrastructure
Manageable studentteacher ratios
Effective Quality Learning Environment
Quality learning outcomes
Learner-centered teaching
approaches, active &flexible
learning
Differentiated instruction &
assessment
Ensuring schools have well
trained teachers
Enhancing teacher capacity
(through regular in-service
training), morale, commitment,
status and income
Teacher reflection on teaching
practices, learner reflection on
learning
Grouping students with mixed
abilities
Developing learners holistically
Provision of interesting learning
opportunities
Enhancing learner motivation &
confidence
Assessment & feedback
Learning environment
Learner support
Protective and healthy
Safe & secure
Inclusive and free
Incentive &Network
Provision of adequate
resources and
technology
Academic support- to help all access
the full curriculum
Assistive technology for the challenged
Flexible pacing and groupingindividual learner addresses the
appropriate standards and objectives
across curriculum
Behavioural support-Positive learning
environment
Inclusive learning
Child friendly-all inclusive
Acceptance of individuals
Gender-sensitive
Family & community
involvement
Equity in access to education
Collaboration
Differentiated Instruction
Structuring flexible curricula, alternative assessments and
examinations
Use of a variety of learning modalities- visual, auditory,
kinesthetic and group work
Learning and communication support in designing instruction
to accommodate learners with disabilities (visually and
physically challenged) and also diversify the educational
experience of all students
Diagram 1: Visualization of inclusive learning
4. Conclusion
If learning institutions in Kenya are to prepare graduates with globally competitive
skills which are also needed for the industrialized society envisioned by Kenya s Vision
2030, it is imperative that they embrace inclusive classrooms and also nurture learners
with the values of inclusive education. This is critical because, an inclusive education
has the advantage of nurturing learners with skills beyond the curriculum prescription.
The skills are effectively nurtured through inclusive classrooms. Ensuring inclusive and
equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all is
critical in achieving education for sustainable development (Sustainable Development
Goals, 2016). Involving learners in all the institutional activities and nurturing values
such as responsibility, ownership, belonging and community is not an option if
universities are to enhance the achievement of Education for Sustainable Development
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(ESD) goals. In addition there is need to orient teaching from knowledge transmission
use of engaging teaching approaches to ensure that all learners benefit from the
teaching-learning experiences they undergo. Engaging university students in
collaborative action research where the community is involved is also critical in
achieving the ESD goals. There is also need for universities to build networks with the
industry, professionals and other higher institutions of learning at national and
international levels for benchmarking purposes to ensure they remain at the top in
offering quality education. Development of faculty capacities through in-service
training and staff development programmes is necessary in order to equip them with
the current global trends to enable them to effectively deliver quality education for
sustainable development.
5. Recommendations
To build and sustain globally competitive education, institutions of learning institutions
should:
A. Nurture Effective High Quality Learning Environments
This entails providing learners with conducive learning environments; influence
democratic learning environment and cultivate rapport with learners; ensuring that
curriculum delivery takes cognizance of the learner context; adopting faculty: student
ratios that are commensurate to learner-centered pedagogical practices; ascertaining
that learning resources and facilities are adequate and at no cost overstretched; building
a culture of respect; acceptance and co-existence of different races, ethnic groups and
religions among learners and members of the school community to prepares learners to
live in an integrated manner in the society in future; and ensuring that learners are
physically safe, emotionally secure and psychologically enabled.
B. Employ Learner-Centered Teaching Approaches and Assessment
This entails that educators employ interactive and collaborative teaching approaches in
order to enhance permanent learning as opposed to traditional lecture and drill
approaches that transmit knowledge to passive learners leading to surface learning.
Teaching and assessment should be individualized in order to adapt to the abilities and
context of individual learners to help them learn at their own pace. This is particularly
critical in practical subjects like Music where learners entry levels to a class differ in
instrumental performance and other skills.
C. Ensure Learner Health and Protection
To promote the physical and the psycho-socio-emotional health of teachers and learners
in learning institution, it is critical that the policy on healthy, hygienic, and safe learning
school environment (with adequate water and sanitation facilities) is enforced. This
could also help to defend and protect learners from abuse and harm as well as provide
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them with positive school experiences. Building boarding facilities/hostels should be
encouraged in order to secure learners as different forms of insecurity including
kidnapping, drugging and terrorism continue to emerge.
D. Build Teacher Capacity
Learning institutions should have clear policies on staff development and capacity
building programmes that are actualized. Such opportunities enhance teachers
refreshment and improvement of pedagogical and academic skills. Through regular inservice training for instance, teachers are able to keep abreast with current research
developments in education as well as trends in technology integration in education; this
improves their teaching practice.
E. Collaborate and Network with Education Partners and Stakeholder
Learning institution should promote participation and collaboration with all learners,
teachers, parents, community, education partners and stakeholders. This makes the
parties involved to offer support to learners, have a sense of belongingness and
ownership of the school as well as its improvement. For universities in Kenya to remain
relevant and globally competitive, they should network and partner with other likeminded institutions, stakeholders and industry locally, nationally and internationally.
They should also create opportunities for students exchange programmes in order to
nurture internationalism. Benchmarking with reputable universities nationally and
internationally is also critical if they are to remain relevant and competitive; they
should also seek collaboration with multi-national companies for funding; and also joint
consultancies and researches among themselves locally on the basis of a university s
strength, rather than compete amongst themselves.
F. Integrate ICT in Classroom Learning
This is critical at all levels of learning if institutions of learning have to produce
graduates for the automated industry of an interconnected world. Integration is
however beset by many challenges in developing countries such as lack of skills in
technology by teachers, lack of infrastructure to establish it, particularly in the rural and
informal settlement areas and among others. Learning institutions should address the
challenges to ensure that they integrate technology with learning
G. Enhance Equity in Access to Information and Academic Facilities
Learning institutions should align with UNESCO s manifesto which requires that all
persons have equal access to information. To this end, they should put in place the
essential academic facilities learners need to access information. For instance, special
facilities like ramps should be fixed to support learners on wheel chair to access school
facilities so as to give them equal opportunities with those without disability as they go
through school life. In addition, necessary structures should be put in place to ensure
that visually impaired learner s access information available in the library with ease
through assistive technology and braille. Hearing impaired learners should also be
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facilitated with hearing devices through assistive technology to enable them get the
benefit of quality education.
H. Enhance Gender Equality
Education stakeholders should collaboratively establish creative ways of formulating
and enforcing a policy on gender equality in enrolment and achievement applicable to
different levels of learning. For instance, girls should be encouraged to enroll for the
male dominated degree programmes. Gender stereotypes in curricula, textbooks, and
teaching-learning processes should be eliminated to make learning girl-friendly. To this
end, continuous revision of curricula and textbook illustrations is imperative if gender
fairness is to be enhanced.
I. Build a Community
This entails that earning institutions aspire to build a community among students and
staff from diverse cultures, races and religions, guided by the spirit of tolerance and
acceptance of individuals regardless of whom they are and where they come from. They
should nurture a non-violent and inclusive school culture where learners and staff live
together in harmony. The institutions should also promote respect for human rights,
dignity, and equality among students, teachers and other members in order to enhance
belongingness and ownership of the institution. The massive destruction that has been
witnessed in schools and universities in Kenya, including the recent wave of burning of
secondary schools and student riots in universities with all their disturbances and
destruction of property worth millions of shillings indicate there is need nurture
communities in learning institutions to alleviate the incidences.
J. Require Teachers to Reflect on Curriculum and Teaching Practice
Continuous reflection on curriculum and teaching practice is imperative if teachers are
to enhance improvement in learning. They should reflect on what they teach and how
they do it in order to determine the teaching approaches and resources that work best
on learners in specific disciplines. They should also reflect on the curriculum objectives
and the evaluation procedures they employ with a view to improving weaknesses in
order to enhance the quality of education delivery. In addition, teachers should
encourage learners to reflect on what they learn in order to internalize knowledge
gained as well as apply it critically and creatively in problem- solving and innovation.
K. Embrace Curricula Reforms
Curricula reforms should be carried out in all learning institutions on regular basis to
make them responsive to the emerging issues such as the rapid technological changes.
This has influenced the critical need to integrate technology in learning in order to
equip learners with skills for the automated industry of the modern world. Responses
to emerging issues demand that teachers are regularly empowered through in-service
training and other forms of staff development to enhance their effectiveness.
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L. Align teaching with Education for Sustainable Development Goals
ESD goal number four envisions an inclusive and equitable quality education that
promotes lifelong education opportunities for all (Sustainable Development Agenda,
2015). This requires teachers to employ modern pedagogical practices to help individual
learners unleash their potential and thereby help each to participate in the development
of the society in their own individual abilities and capacity. For this to become a reality,
teachers should believe in the educability of all learners and ability by all to contribute
positively to the society. It is critical that learners are encouraged to pursue subjects of
their strengths and interest to help them excel and achieve their best for their fulfillment
and career development.
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TRANSFORMING EDUCATION THROUGH INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS
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