European Journal of Education Studies
ISSN: 2501 - 1111
ISSN-L: 2501 - 1111
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
Volume 3 │Issue 4│2017
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.376315
DIET VARIETY VERSUS PARENT PERCEPTIONS OF
PRE-SCHOOLER MEALTIME BEHAVIOURS
Faith Kurete, Mathew Svodziwa
Bulawayo Polytechnic, P.O. Box 1392, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
Abstract:
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Children came up with a number
of children rights. Among them is the Right to eat healthy food, derived from Article 27,
which states that every child has a right to a standard of living that is good enough to
meet their physical, social and mental needs. The study investigates relationship
between diet variety and parent perceptions of pre-schooler children, the eating
challenges which pre-schoolers face, the levels of parental awareness on the significance
of dietary varieties and strategies parents are using to curb eating problems of preschooler children. The study recommends that, there be a link between diet variety and
parents perceptions on mealtime behaviours of their children particularly the preschoolers. Therefore parents should be taught on the importance of dietary variety to
the children and how to enforce good eating habits.
Keywords: diet variety, parent perceptions, mealtime behaviours, pre-schooler
1. Introduction
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Children, came up with a number
of children rights. Among them is the Right to eat healthy food, derived from Article 27,
which states that every child has a right to a standard of living that is good enough to
meet their physical, social and mental needs. It is from the food that one eats that
promotes overall growth of a child. ‚ccording to Freud s theory of development, what
happens in the early years of a child has a bearing on the personality of the person. The
researcher has noticed children of primary school stage and those in pre-schooler stage
eating sweets, jiggies, maputi and freeze cool at lunch hour.
Food pickiness in children results in limited variety in their diets to their strong
preferences for only a limited number of foods. Obesigenic eating habits are formed
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DIET VARIETY VERSUS PARENT PERCEPTIONS OF PRE-SCHOOLER MEALTIME BEHAVIOURS
during 3-5 years and are associated with the risk of developing chronic diseases later in
life (Magary, Daniels, et al, 2003). Research has shown that the development of food
preferences of children begins while in their mothers womb Savage J.S., Fisher J.O. et
al 2007). What mothers eat while pregnant is dependent on parental awareness on the
significance of dietary varieties. According to Adamo, Ferraro and Brett (2012),
improving the diets of women before and during pregnancy has been suggested to
improve the quality of young women s diets could be effective in improving the quality
of their children s diets.
Education influences the effectiveness of resources employed to achieve ideal
nutrition (Jonsson, 1995).
While FAO (2009) argued that, diet may change from
expensive and nutrient rich foods to calorie rich and energy dense foods. This will make
food to be unhealthy especially if consumed regularly.
Dietary variety means eating a balanced diet or meal with foods from within and
across each of the five food groups and in the recommended amounts. The five food
groups are as follows; First group comprises of vegetables and legumes, second group
consists of fruits, third group comprises of lean meats and poultry, fish, eggs, legume;
fourth comprises of grain foods; the fifth group comprises of milk cheese. Having a
variety of foods will make mealtimes interesting and something to look forward to.
(www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au)
2. Objectives
1. To identify the relationship between diet variety and parent perceptions of preschooler children;
2. To establish eating challenges which pre-schoolers face;
3. To determine levels of parental awareness on the significance of dietary varieties;
4. To determine what strategies parents are using to curb eating problems of preschooler children.
3. Research questions
1. What is the relationship between diet variety and parent perceptions of preschooler children?
2. What eating challenges do pre-schoolers have?
3. How are the levels of parental awareness on the importance of dietary varieties?
4. What strategies are parents using to curb eating problems in pre-schooler
children?
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4. Theoretical framework
The paper works from the social learning theory Bandura. Theory states that behaviour
is learned from the environment through observation. He also believes that humans
actively process information and they are concerned about the relationship between
behaviour and its consequences (Bandura 1977). Children learn and imitate from people
who surround them and the environment. Children are surrounded by parents,
siblings, caregivers, friends, television and school teacher. These are models whose
behaviour children observe and imitate. Engle & Ricciuti (2000) posits that the care
child receives and the ways in which the child develops is determined by the quality of
interaction between child and parent or caregiver. According to Grover (2005 , If given
appropriate care children make remarkable gains in physical and motor development, in
linguistic and cognitive functioning as well as dramatic progress in their emotional, social,
regulatory and moral capacities. Therefore it is imperative that children have necessary
support which in enables them to develop holistically. Children, therefore need to be
brought up in the environment that is safe from harm, be it physical or emotional, good
health, nutrition and interaction with and attachment to caregivers or parents.
5. Parental Awareness On The importance Of Dietary Varieties
Parents strongly influence their child s eating habits (Guideth and Cavazza 2008). Food
choices are known to be influenced by parents food preferences and beliefs of what
constitutes healthy foods (Dennison and Jenkins 2001). However due to globalisation,
the beliefs of people are shifting on everything that pertains to life. That is what was
healthy yesterday may seem wayward today and result in individuals compromising
what they eat Children tend to attempt to try food that they see their parents or
caregiver eats (Patrick and Nicklas 2005). Children have a habit of wanting to eat foods
that they are being forbidden by parents (Birch and Davison 2001). The quality of diet in
a household is dependent on the person who holds grocery punch. (Turner, Kelly and
McKenna 2006). Therefore if the person who holds grocery punch in a household is
knowledgeable about the importance of dietary variety, the meals would be balanced
and something to look forward to.
Mothers beliefs in the importance of family meals increased likelihood of
children eating dinner with families increased likelihood of children eating dinner with
families by increasing likelihood that mothers planned dinner and that dinners were
regularly scheduled (McIntosh et al (2010). Eating meals in front of the television has
been shown to be strongly predictive of poor diet quality and poor food-related
behaviours.
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6. Child Nutrition
Prolonged eating problems that are persistent can result in undermining children s
growth, development and relationship with caregivers, may lead to long term health
and developmental problems (Keren, Feldman and Tyanos 2001). The child might end
up being underfeed or overfeed and result in being obsess. Children tend to like the
food that their caregivers eat in their presence. According to Palfreyman et al (2012),
caregivers who model healthy food intakes are likely to establish healthy eating habits.
Conner and ‚rmitage
00 , note that child s preference to foods is learned
through role models who are either parents or caregivers. Black and Hurley (2013),
children s eating patterns and food preferences are established early in life. Parents and
caregivers who have eating problems may need assistance to impart healthy nutritious
mealtime behaviours in their children. The studies have shown that parental fruit and
vegetables consumption were among the strongest predictors of the child s fruit and
vegetable consumption. Studies have shown that pressurising children to finish their
food results in less food being consumed. Parental pressure to eat can have negative
effects on children s intake of healthy foods, Galloway et al 00 . This can then results
in the child disliking the food they are pressured to eat.
Birch et al (1998) have shown that parental control efforts may potentiate
children s preference for restricted foods as well as their intake of similar unhealthy
foods. This would then result in diminishing self-control in eating. According to
Markham (2015 ,
Successful parenting fosters psychological adjustment, helps children
succeed in school encourages curiosity about the world and motivates children to achieve.”
Thus is essential for children from an early stage.
7. Strategies to curb eating challenges in children
Markham (2015) wrote an article on ways to keep a child from developing an eating
disorder. The following is what is listed in the article:
1. Consider your attitude towards your own body.
2. Educate your child about how the media presents thinness as equated with
everything positive and perpetuates unrealistic images.
3. Commit yourself to model good eating habits
4. Don t talk about dieting.
5. Learn the latest in nutrition
6. Don t make your child self-conscious by commenting on it if you notice that
she s becoming a bit pudgy
7. Throw out junk food and don t stock treats.
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8. Keep trying to get them to eat their veggies.
9. Get your child involved in sports.
10. Never comment on other people s bodies.
11. Discuss with sitters what your child may eat.
12. Nurse your baby
13. Reduce stress. Higher levels of stress hormone in their bodies are less healthy
physically and have a tendency to put on more weight.
14. Reduce TV use.
8. Methodology
The researcher used a mixed approach to research, combining quantitative and
qualitative technics to analyse primary and secondary data. The descriptive survey was
used to gather information from the parents of pre-schooler learners. The design
enabled the documentation of the situation in regards to the objectives and research
questions under review. The study used parents of pre-schoolers who are between the
age of 3 and 5 years as parents determine what their children eat and children are
unable to respond to questions under the study logically.
8.1 Ethical consideration
The researcher got permission from the Head of the Bulawayo community to conduct
the study. The eligible subjects to the study were informed about the study and asked
for permission to participate in the study. Informed oral consent was sort from parents
with children between 3-5 years within the community of Bulawayo Polytechnic.
8.2 Instruments
The researchers used a questionnaire which was self-structured and some questions
which are closed questions are giving numeric data. And some were open-ended
questions to give views and opinions of the respondents on the subject at hand. The
questionnaire was pretested to a group similar to the chosen sample. This was to ensure
that the questionnaire is understandable and is measuring what it is intended to
measure.
8.3 Sample
The study was looking at dietary variety versus parental perceptions towards the preschooler mealtime behaviours, thereby using purposive sampling. Thereby coming up
with a sample of 50 questionnaire respondents who have preschool age children. The
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researchers targeted parents of pre-schoolers mainly because food choices in this age
group are done by parents.
9. Findings
The questionnaire response rate was 100%.
The respondents were 78% females and 22% were males. Educational level and
professions of parents whose children are under study were as follows, Degree 2%,
diploma 24%, certificate 32%, O level 28 %, profession, lecturer 20%, housewife 12%.
The data shows that the respondents were literate enough to respond to the
questionnaire. The following were the ages of children whose parents were respondents
to the study. The 3 year age group was represented by 34%, 4year age group by 25%
and the 5year age group by 20%.
Gender of child of the children under study was as follows, female 64% and
males were 36%. And among the children under study, 78% of children have eating
problems. Parents give children vitamin supplements. The supplements are given in the
following percentages, Multivitamins 58%, Iron 12%, Cod liver oil 2% and 22% are not
given any vitamin supplements.
Figure 1
The figure 1 above shows relationship between the gender of child and eating
problems, 23 female children, which translate to 46% have eating problems and 16 male
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children, which translate to 32%. When comparing within the same gender, 72% female
children and 89% male children have eating problems.
A. To identify the relationship between diet variety and parent perceptions of preschooler children
Table 1: List of foods children refuse to eat
Type of food
Frequency
Percentage
Onion
4
8
Eggs
6
4
Beans
7
14
Vegetables
7
14
Milk
4
8
Potatoes
3
6
Cabbage
4
8
Peanut Butter
1
2
Butternut
3
6
Fruits
2
4
Lettuce
1
2
Traditional Dishes
2
4
Meat
3
6
A greater a number of the respondents said that their child refuses to eat vegetables and
beans both represented by 14% each. The least of the foods that children refuse to eat
according to their parents is peanut butter.
Figure 2
B. Did you ever eat the foods that your child refuses to eat while pregnant?
In response to the above question, 56% of the questionnaire respondents ate the food
that the child refuses to eat while pregnant with the child in the study. And 32 % did
not eat the food that their children refuse to eat while pregnant of that child.
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C. Do you sit on the same table with your child for meals?
The question above sought to establish if parents have any interaction with their
children at mealtimes. Among the respondents 86% share the same table with their
children and 8% do not share the table with their children at mealtimes while 6% did
not respond to the question.
D. Do your child have an input in your grocery shopping?
Figure 2
The pie chart above shows whether children have input in grocery list, 50% said their
children have input on grocery list and 22% said no while 28% were silent on the
matter.
Table 2: Types of food you do not allow your child to eat
Types of food
Frequency
Percentage
Sweets
14
28
Jiggies
13
26
Chocolate
10
20
Soft drinks
4
8
Pork
3
6
Food with spices
1
2
The table above shows types of food that parents do not allow their children to eat.
They also gave reason for not allowing their children to eat the food. Some of the
reasons given were, it losses appetite, it s not healthy and for religious reason for pork.
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Table 3: Challenges which pre-schoolers face
Eating Problems
Frequency
Percentage
Walking around at mealtimes
23
46
Eating while watching TV
25
50
Picky/ fussy eating
12
24
Vomiting/retching while feeding
12
24
8
16
10
20
Retaining food in mouth for a long time
Not eating some solid foods
There indeed eating challenges among pre-schoolers, with some of them having
multiple eating problems. However the major eating challenge that pre-schoolers face,
according to the table is eating while watching TV and walking around mealtimes. This
is represented by 50% and 46% respectively. The least is retaining food in mouth for a
long time with a representation of 16%.
E. To determine levels of parental awareness on the significance of dietary varieties.
Among the questionnaire respondents, 62% indicated that they have a variety of diet
and 38% did not respond to the item. Below is the table which shows what the
questionnaire respondents listed as components of their meals.
Table 4: What does your meal consists of?
Frequency
Percentage
Sadza, vegetables & meat
16
32
Starch, vitamins, proteins & iron
10
20
At least 3 nutrients
2
4
Carbohydrates
3
6
31
62
Total
The majority seem to have a variety of food in their diets as indicated above. However
there is a group represented by 6% which has its meals consisting mainly of
carbohydrates only. And the other one said three nutrients and did not specify the
nutrients they have in their meals.
Table 5: Strategies parents are using to curb eating problems of pre-schooler children
Frequency
Percentage
Timetable for meal
4
8
Teach good eating habits
6
12
Switch off TV
8
16
Family dinner
20
40
5
10
43
86
Involving them in food preparation
Total
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The table above shows some of the strategies that parents are using to curb eating
problems of pre-schooler children. The following is what was stated; have timetable for
mealtimes, teaching good eating habits, switching off television at mealtimes, having
family dinner and lastly involving children in the food preparation From the table 40%
advocate for family dinner, followed by 16% who switch off the television at mealtimes.
10. Discussions
Studies have shown have shown that 25% to 45% of all children have eating problems
especially at time when children are challenged with new foods or mealtime
expectations. In this study 78% of children have eating problems. This might be due to
geographical differences.
The study concluded that parents are concerned about the eating habits of their
children thereby not allowing their children to eat certain foods. This is in line with
what Variyam et al (1999), who posit that parents have a basic level of what good or bad
food for their children. Literature by Markham 2015 gives 14 ways to keep away
children from developing eating disorders and it also looks to children in their teens
while this study was focusing on children between the age of 3 and 5 years. From the
list, 4 were given as suggestions of how parents are doing to curb eating problems.
These are timetable for meal, teaching good eating habits, switching off TV during
mealtimes and having family dinner.
A similar study was conducted by Jones, McVie and Noble 2008 used a
projective method to examine the inferences parents make about other food choices for
their children to investigate under lying reasons for such choices with parents of
between ages of 3 and 5 years. This study used mixed approach methodology to look at
diet versus parental perceptions of pre-schoolers of 3 and 5 years of age. Jones et al
advocate for the need of different research techniques to counter biases so that there is a
better understanding of the underlying reasons for parents decisions about children s
food.
Hughes and Shewchuk (2012) had a study on child temperament, parent
emotions, and perceptions of the child s feeding experience. They note that child
temperament is related to parent or caregiver. Parent or caregiver s positive emotions
are positively related to parent feeding strategies. This is the limitation of this study, it
did not look at emotions of parents and children during mealtimes. Theory on learning
by Bandura posits that children learn from their environment. However this study did
not touch on the emotions which influence the nature of the environment.
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This study found out that meals of most people only consist of food from the three
groups and others only consisting of carbohydrates. Whereas a balanced diet is
comprised of food from five groups of food. (www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au).
In this study, parents of pre-schooler said that they switch off TV and have
family dinner, in a bind to curb eating problems in their children. This what is in line
with what Veugelers et al (2005) and Marquis et al (2005), who posit that eating meals in
front of the television has been shown to be strongly predictive of poor diet quality and
poor food related behaviours. According to McIntosh et al (2010 , mothers belief in the
importance of family meals increased likelihood of children eating dinner with families
by increasing likelihood that mothers planned dinner and that dinners were regularly
scheduled. This concurs with the results of this study that, parents of pre-schoolers
timetable mealtimes and have family dinner to curb eating problems.
11. Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn from the findings of the study:
Children s eating habits are very important, in the opinions of the parents
concerned. The parents use many strategies in the attempt to promote good
eating practices in their children.
eating challenges.
children.
consulted on what they want.
The study concluded that the majority of children in the study conducted had
Picky eating behaviours caused time respondents much stress when feeding their
There is imposition of dietary varieties to children by parents as children are not
Decision making regarding food choices within the context of the family is part
of an ongoing negotiating process between child and parent with children
devising different ways to counteract adults power and control over their food
choices
12. Recommendations
The study recommends that, there be a link between diet variety and parents
perceptions on mealtime behaviours of their children particularly the pre-schoolers.
Therefore parents should be taught on the importance of dietary variety to the children
and how to enforce good eating habits. Parental concerns about picky eating should be
adequately assessed and managed in the routine clinic consultations so that the
problem can be rectified early.
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