European Journal of Education Studies
ISSN: 2501 - 1111
ISSN-L: 2501 - 1111
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
Volume 3 │Issue 4│2017
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.377050
TEACHING FOR TESTS VS. TEACHING FOR LEARNING
Srinivasa Rao Idapalapatii
Assistant Professor of English,
University of Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
Abstract:
A review of the opposing arguments with regard to the practices of assessment
teaching/learning and the ideal of holistic teaching/learning in education leads to
hypothesize that higher test scores in assessment learning also reflect the quality of
learning and personalities that holistic education ideology advocates. The acquisition of
holistic ideals is a qualitative phenomenon that is identifiable only through the behavior
of an individual since the holistic concept involves the knowledge, skills and values
required for citizens in making decisions that are responsible and democratic
‛adjanova & Iliško
. In an effort to find out the extent to which scores in tests in
assessment learning reflect the quality of the behavior that holistic learning advocates, a
study is taken up at an English Language Center (ELC) of a university with the
participants from five different batches of students that attended English language
programs of different levels and courses. A purposive sample of students that is
divided into two groups, with 130 students in each, is taken up for the study. Group A
contains the students that scored 70% and more in the previous summative tests and
group B carries the students that scored between 50%-70% in the tests. A questionnaire
that forms a Likert Scale was prepared in light of the holistic ideals delivered by
Krishnamurti (1974; 1989) on education. The questionnaire was distributed to the
groups of participants followed by personal interviews with them. The quantitative
data analysis of the responses was done using SPSS and ANOVA soft wares to establish
the study hypothesis, and a positive correlation between scores in assessment learning
and holistic ideals is established.
Keywords: holistic education, learning, assessment education, value, and purpose of
education
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved.
© 2015 – 2017 Open Access Publishing Group
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Srinivasa Rao Idapalapati
TEACHING FOR TESTS VS. TEACHING FOR LEARNING
1. Introduction
Assessment teaching or teaching for tests and holistic teaching or teaching for learning
are the two views of teaching that have been under discussion for decades, and they are
the views that educators and administrators are much concerned about. The assessment
learning claims great practice-priority despite the early emergence and historical
significance of the holistic learning as the primary type of education that has left a
positive impact on the development, maintenance and in upholding the social,
economic and cultural norms and values in the early ages of human civilization (Bhatta,
2009). The concept of assessment learning developed and spread faster, and has enjoyed
a worldwide appreciation since its introduction in the Chinese imperial civil service,
back in 2000 BCE (Miller, 2006). Holistic and assessment learning practices have various
disparities in implementation and in the understanding of core values of learning.
Assessment is the process of sampling large domains and processing skills that create
an allowance for inference of student understanding of a part of the larger domain
under exploration (Badders, 1962). Holistic learning in one way is the process of
obtaining information based on a personal search for identification, meaning, and
purpose in life that is achieved through the creation of connections with the
communities, the natural world, and acquisition of humanitarian values such as peace
and compassion. On the other way, holistic educational concept implies an effort to
liberate students from the consciousness of their materialistic content and transform
them into more independent and creative individuals. A holistic education system is
governed by various values, virtues, and perceptions. A combination of holistic values
and learning goals as they are usually set in assessment learning leads discussions
worldwide on the issue of assessment criteria and standards, and on the necessity for
gross-root-level changes in education.
Ausubel (1962) writes that education needs to develop the students towards
learning by discovery. When learners establish objective correlation between their
experiences and the new ideas that they intend to learn, the actual learning becomes
meaningful and complete. The available assessment teaching learning practice has a
range of implications at social, personal and administrative levels. The factors such as
gender, disability, race, and age have their tacit contributions in assessment process and
their practices, which necessitates a fresh understanding of the criterion referenced or
norm referenced assessment practices that provide an avenue for future research in this
regard (Brookhart, 2004).
Whether Assessment teaching is an improved form of holistic teaching approach,
or a fast track approach of teaching to generate specific field experts that are devoid of
the personality traits as they are advocated by holistic teaching philosophy, is a subject
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that needs an in-depth exploration. When it is looked as an improved version of
holistic-teaching approach, to what extent the educational approach incorporates the
ideals of holistic philosophy becomes a question of inquiry.
2. Literature Review
2.1 History of assessments
According to Miller (2006), examinations came into practice first in 2000 BCE in the
Chinese imperial civil service. The examinations were essential requirements for those
in the economic or political wish list. The assessment lasted for two days, and was
considered as a direct pathway to political control by the emperor. The Chinese
adopted the Machiavellian system for the adult education. Machiavellianism is
a
strategy of social conduct that involves manipulating others for personal gain, often
against the other's self-interest Wilson et al,
, p.
. In the
th
century, the
examination was elevated to a tool processing the rewarding and elevation abilities. The
issuance of leaving certificate commenced in the year 1872 in Scotland; a situation that
changed significantly from the Comprehensives to Higher Still (Miller, 2006). Bloom
et.al (1956) developed a framework of learning objectives to be achieved by instruction.
The framework comprises cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains with each of
them divided into different stages. The framework was brought forth in order to bring
about uniformity in measuring the levels of achievements of the students at different
universities by exchanging the test items developed by the faculties of different
universities Krathwohl,
. In the view of Forehand
, ‛looms scheme of
classification of the processes of thinking and learning is the first measuring tool of
thinking that teachers can use in measuring their students achievement after a period
of instruction.
According to Bloom (1967), testing is both a pride and despair. It is a pride
because it provides clarity on what we know and also because it s widespread in the
fields of psychology and education. Willis (2007), comments on the difference between
the assessment of learning and assessment for learning. Willis holds that assessment for
learning is a pedagogical practice that aims at improving learner motivation, mastery of
the content to be learnt and learner autonomy while assessment of learning implies the
summative grading of the learners and the ownership of the learned content that is
judged based on how it is displayed in the learners voice of the content. The
assessment practice and principles discuss the scope, terminologies, and classification of
the evaluation process and methods pointing out the most effective styles and
approaches. The purpose of assessment is to support learning by providing all partners
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with sufficient, dependable information and feedback for informed judgments,
decisions and choices useful to plan and improve further leaning.
In the view of William (2013), assessment is the bridge between teaching and
learning. Formative assessment is the assessment for learning, which is a powerful way
of improving learner achievement. Formative assessment attracts increased interest in
research, classroom practice and education policy as an assessment that has the
potential for guidance in teaching and learning processes. Qualifier exams and eleven
plus are examples of the latest entrant of assessment in the universities and other
private schools. The core use of formative assessment is to guide teachers and students
in the learning process, to acquire information related to the achievement levels of
students, and to observe the learners skills and abilities for improvising teaching
practices. This shows the correlative nature of teaching and learning that displays the
aspect of reciprocity with regard to the process. Diagnostic assessment is an assessment
for learning style identification, the primary purpose of which is to diagnose or check
the viability of the curriculum (Hammerman, 2009). Assessment of scientific inquiry
capabilities can provide the teachers with a useful tool of measuring the achievement
levels of learning objectives (Zachos, 2004). The assessment of scientific enquiry
capabilities can be done by structured enquiry that facilitates the students with direct
interaction with the natural phenomenon being observed and learned.
Montgomery & Connolly (1987) write about the norm-referenced and criterion
referenced assessment tests. They mention that norm referenced tests are designed to
measure the performances of individuals in relation to their counterparts in a group
while the criterion referenced tests are designed to measure the individual performance
of a student in relation to a specific set of skills or in relation to a specific domain of
information. The criterion-referenced tests are linked to instructional objectives and are
designed to assess continual improvement in the performances of individuals. The
primary use of criterion-referenced tests is to measure the mastery levels of specific
skills with the test items usually created based on known objectives that are associated
with the tasks of interest. Norm-referenced tests are usually the standardized tests that
aim at differentiating high and low level achievers and award a grade or percentile that
refers to the overall achievement level in comparison with the other students in a group.
To put it in brief the criterion-referenced tests are more akin to formative tests and
norm-referenced tests are closer to summative tests.
Achievement tests and standardized tests become incomplete for two reasons
(Koretz, 2008). One reason is that they measure only a subset of skills and goals of
education. Some important educational goals such as the motivation to keep learning,
tendency to team work, application of theoretical knowledge in the relevant real-time
situations, ability to critical thinking and problem solving are not compliant with
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standardized tests. The second reason is that the tests, as samples of behaviors for
analyzing and measuring the mastery of skills and knowledge, proves to be very small
when compared to the immensity of the domains of knowledge and skills. The latest
developments with regard to teachers accountability to their students learning
achievements caused the educational shift from compliance-based accountability
systems towards results-based accountability systems that are described as the valueadded models (VAM) of teacher assessment (Murphy, 2012). As the VAMs are
completely based on standardized tests and students scores in assessing teacher
effectiveness, prominence to standardize achievement tests relatively increased, and
some educators started arguing that VAMs are completely disregard the holistic ideals
and give preference to only scores.
2.2 Values in holistic education
Underhill (2006), points out that there are two primary schools of thought with regard
to the process of learning. On the one hand, the behaviorist school of thought holds that
learning is a process of conditioning. The learners are conditioned to particular
behavioral patterns and responses by consistently being subjected to some kind of
stimulus to which they keep responding for some kind of reward. On the other hand,
the cognitive school of thought views learning as a process of observation of the
environment, categorization of the observed, and formulation of generalizations for
future actions
Krishnamurthy (1989) provides an interesting version of education. For him
education is freedom from fear. People in every society are all afraid of many things.
They are afraid of being isolated, losing jobs, losing friends and families etc. People are
someway or other programmed and conditioned by cultures, societal norms and rules
that imply the fear of losing them. All the people keep acting under such fear and
confinement. Once people can break out of those confinements, they start thinking
about the reality of their existence. The objective of education must be to help the
students become fearless, free of all kinds of conditionings and the psychological
programming. It s only when they become fearless they are able to think about the
reality of life, they are able to understand the process of life and become integrated and
holistic personalities that can live in peace. Krishnamurthy (ibid) further states that
learning happens through observation of life. Learning doesn t necessarily happen
under a particular teacher, philosopher, or guru. Learning can happen through
anything viz. a dead leaf, a bird on flight, a tear, the smile of a woman etc. Life itself is a
great teacher.
Krishnamurthy (1974) emphasizes that the present education system all over the
world is busy in producing the citizens that can fit well into the world of patterns of
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values. The patterns of values are all about money, position, prestige and power.
Schools, religious institutes, parents and society norms drive the students towards
being conditioned to become a suitable personality that can fit into the frame work of
the values. Education is to learn how to look at what the books say. It is about how to
listen and find the truth in what the books say. The real education is not just to pass or
score high in exams and settle in a high pay jobs. It is in creating a new culture in which
there is no greed, envy, jealous or ambition. The real education is about carrying oneself
away from the stream of social, religious, cultural and economic activity. To be sucked
into that stream is destructive and putting oneself into the existent world of chaos and
disorder that is due to the greed, ambition, jealousy, enviousness etc. The goal of
education must be to help the students to get away from this chaotic stream, find the
truth of their existence, observe the processes of life and create a culture that is free of
all the chaotic conditions where order prevails with all the fearless and totally
independent people.
Nielsen (2006) summarizes Steiner s
concept of imaginative teaching,
which in their view is a key to the holistic development of children. Imaginative
teaching is the pedagogical transaction of imagination that can be achieved by
triggering the imagination of the learners in different means viz. dramatization,
routinization, story creation and narration, managing discussions and exploration of the
content of teaching etc. According to Steiner (ibid), imaginative teaching unravels the
inner potential of the students and steers them towards understanding the purpose and
meaning of their existence in the world. To put it in brief, imaginative teaching bridges
the gap between the students consciousness of the materialistic world that they are
living in and their other world where they can see themselves as individuals.
Holistic education cultivates on the rules of morality having an aspect of
wholeness in the religious humanity impetus. The minds behind the mechanistic
utilitarian rationality that lead to the development of smart gadgets are holistic despite
their attention is drawn much towards the uncontrollable technical and economic
growth. Holistic education qualities include wisdom, insight, scientific thinking,
intuition and appreciation of beauty (Forbes, 2004). The holistic learning develops
mentally depending on the environment of learning. The holistic learning is described
as having the qualities of spiritual ultimacy and sagacious competence.
The aim of ancient Indian education system was to ensure the fitness of students
in terms of their usefulness to the society and life as whole, and to develop them into
pious society members. The essence of education is not to lead a self-centered life, but
about being consistently aware of their obligations to the society. The purpose of
education is to build up great character, practice righteousness and enlighten the other
members of the society towards their duties to keep their societies peaceful and
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meaningful. Built on the most important governance idea of perfection, the
development of the soul and mind was paramount. The ultimate objective of education
is to help individuals grow in the harmony of certain large universal qualities that could
build a higher type of manhood. The most essential human values obtained from the
ancient Indian holistic education are trust, courtesy, dignity, respect, and honesty
(Bhatta, 2009). As an outcome of the theory of Indian knowledge of life and death that
form the whole truth of life, the goal of education is to understand the values of life that
clearly differentiates the material and the mortal, the physical and the spiritual, and the
perishable and the permanent
Mookerji,
. p. XXii . Education in India stared in the
Vedic period and has been in two systemic forms. One is Brahminical system of
education that is regulated by religious values, and the other one is the Buddhist form
of education that is secular in nature (Choudhary, 2009). Higher education in ancient
India was considered as an important agency of social change and transformation.
3. Research Methodology
Retracing the past online bibliography records for having access to works, major
reports, large research projects and units relevant to holistic and assessment learning
helps in creating the questionnaire required. Administering questionnaire to both
assessment and holistic education experts, within the given area of the study under
consideration, followed by face-to-face interviews provides the data for analysis.
Extensive use of internet for searching the relevant materials on the assessment and
holistic learning methods with the aim of making a track of the references provided in
the bibliographies, and helping in the acquisition of e-learning materials and other
internet based sources. Make the summaries of each of the relevant articles that help in
comparing the assessment and holistic learning ideals easier. Carrying of survey is also
considered as a data collection method used to obtain accurate and unbiased
information from respondents in the learning sector in this study. Both qualitative and
quantitative analyses of the obtained information were carried out through ANOVA
and SPSS application to come up with a clear display of information under analysis A
stratified random sampling was used since there are various schools in the area with
some teaching elementary level English language, some more teaching intermediate
level while others are dealing with advanced levels of English courses. This sampling
approach involved creating groups known as strata. The targeted population in this
study was all English language students from different levels from which the final two
groups were taken off based on their scores in the previous standardized tests.
The data collection process uses qualitative data collection techniques. These
techniques facilitate the collection of different sets of data depending on the variability
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of the data attributes. The primary data collection method is the use of a questionnaire.
The questionnaire comprises 15 Likert items with five choices; strongly disagree,
disagree, neutral, agree, strongly disagree. All the responses carry the points based on
the choice of the response on a 1-5 scale. The questionnaire was used in the interviews
followed by the distribution of the questionnaire. The pros of the method are that the
questionnaire directs the people being interviewed to certain qualitative issues that are
important in the study while the quantitative part of the study is done by the analysis of
the data collected. Hiding the respondents identities reduces the biased responses as it
avoids the possibility of developing biases due to the discussions on the questions with
the known participants.
4. Data Quality Control
The use of methods that guarantee the quality and precision of data from a given source
is known as quality control. The credibility of the data collected was improved by
keeping the collected materials in archives for further review. Data quality control is a
concept usually applied in the product manufacturing field where the best strategy to
prevent data contamination is to get the data independently keyed by two data entry
operators that would be verified by computer (Edwards, 1998). Adopting the concept of
the data quality control, the reliability and validity of the information is this study is
ensured by checking multiple research works available online.
4.1 Quantitative or Qualitative data analysis
Since the error margin of the confidence interval has an effect on the sample size, large
sample size is important because it minimizes the error when making conclusions about
the study. Large sample size increases the level of confidence and hence the validity
and reliability of the data. The area of the study has about ten faculties with about 100
students in each and the questionnaire was distributed to anyone randomly. To get the
correct number of the sample, the best method of calculating sample size is necessary.
The 95% of the confidence level is appropriate. At this confidence interval Z
α
(0.05)
=1.96. Minimum margin error selected is therefore 1.96, which ensures that the survey
carried out gives the accurate information about the study. From the information
selected, it is easy to calculate the needed sample size.
To ensure the accuracy of the data, 95% confidence level was considered. This
value dictates the sample size needed to represent the target population. 95% CI implies
that the marginal error equals 1.96.
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E=
the value of n can be generated (n refers to sample size used
in the survey.)
Where, p is the prior judgment of the right value of p, while n is the sample size. The
analysis is based on two-tail Z test thus marginal error equals to 0.025. This value gives
Z=1.96. The value of p = 0.3. Making the sample size n the subject of the formulae, we
get:
0.025 = .
√ . * . /n
(0.021/n) = (0.025/1.96)2
Therefore n = 1291
Thus, the sample size needed is about 1300 respondents. Thus in order to make
the ideal for the statistical purpose the sample size 130 is multiplied for 10 times and
taken the sample as 1300 in each group.
4.2 Quantitative data analysis
After collecting the data in the form of the responses to the questionnaire that is
provided in the appendix below, the statistical data was recorded in, excel spreadsheet
before being transferred to the SPSS for analysis. The means of the holistic ideal
acquisition rate of Group A and Group B are recorded as 61.5 and 58.433 respectively.
The acquisition rate depicted a range of 3.07 marks. The deviation between the
two groups was 15.9778 and 16. 6024 for Group B and Group A respectively.
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics
N
Group-B (scores
Minimum
1300
between 50%-70%)
Valid N (list wise)
Maximum
27.00
90.00
Mean
58.4333
Std. Deviation
15.97775
1300
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics
N
Group-A
(scores above 70%)
Valid N (list wise)
Minimum
1300
Maximum
40.00
98.00
Mean
61.5000
Std. Deviation
16.60235
1300
After carrying out the ANOVA analysis, the F-statistics was equal to 5.8129, which
leads to rejection of the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between scores that
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differentiate high and low achievers and the acquisition of holistic ideals in education.
Therefore, the analysis leads to the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis- there is a
significant difference in the acquisition of ideals of holistic ideals between high scoring
and low scoring students. It shows that high scoring students in general acquire the
holistic ideals also much better than their low scoring counterparts.
Table 3: ANOVA
Group B
Sum of Squares
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
df
Mean Square
285667547
670
426369.47
45475600
620
73347.74
340143147
1290
F
5.8129
Sig.
.899
4.3 Qualitative data analysis
The results obtained after carrying out the SPSS and ANOVA tests lead to a clear
description of the rejection of the null hypothesis and upholding of the alternative
hypothesis. Statistical analysis of the data has shown that acquisition of holistic
education ideals in assessment learning educational set up is to some extent reflected in
the scores of the students in standardized tests. The results imply that the students that
score high in standardized tests tend to acquire holistic education ideals also much
better than those that score low. A range of 3.07 marks is worth noticing considering the
other factors held constant such as the ethnic composition of the student population,
environmental location and conditions around the school and the possibility of
physically challenged students within the student population. The holistic ideals
acquisition rate of Group A has a standard deviation of about 0.7 points; a variation that
shows a clear correlation between the implications of scores in standardized tests as an
indicating factor holding all others factors constant. The significance difference of 0.899
at a 95% confidence level is a clear indication of nullification of the entire null
hypothesis through a considerable degree of confirmation that is above the margins of
doubt or biased probability. The study results made a direct implication that most
educational institutions have absorbed the test for learning criterion of education
through performance evaluation as the primary means of reaching the academic goals.
Out of 300 respondents, only 50 considered the importance of holistic learning as a
separate and different learning faculty while the rest settled for the most acclaimed
method of performance and assessment learning. Although many respondents in
interviews mention about the importance of holistic education ideals, none of them are
quiet certain about what the definitiveness of the holistic education concept as well as
about how to cultivate and foster the concept.
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5. Conclusion
Holistic learning and assessment learning methods of education are said to be the two
most important in the educational environment. Each of the two learning strategies has
a significant role in influencing knowledge required in any society. Assessment leads to
the establishment of a comprehensive and robust research, through the provision of
sound and logical principles and theories; a goal that can be achieved in various means
of research in assessment (Miller, 2006). Despite being incomplete and unsatisfactory
regarding human behavior and life traits, exploration confirmed that assessment is a
thorough way of accomplishing academic perfection and prosperity holding other
human values constant making the bulk of realities behind of assessment burden.
Holistic learning on the other end has created management structures that have
successfully fostered healthy, happy and responsive organizations. Holistic schools are
sufficiently flexible, mixed age and abilities and small in capacity creating a pathway
for class transfer at different times, which is an economic merit since the level of
knowledge is gauged by the degree of intelligence reflected in performance and
provision of the life-related solution and not just in assessments such as examination.
Holistic education schemes have great proclamation for respect due to its uniqueness in
encouraging individual non-conformist thinking and decrying hierarchy (Bhatta, 2009).
If you now begin to think, to observe, to learn, not from books, but learn for yourself by
watching, listening to everything that is happening around you, you will grow up to be a
different human being (Krishnamurthy,
. p.
.
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Appendix: Questionnaire/Likert Scale for Holistic Educational Behavior
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
(SD)
(D)
(N)
(A)
(SA)
1. When I m in studies, I focus much on learning not on scoring more.
2. I m learning English to obtain better employment opportunities after my studies.
3. When I score low in tests, I feel that I m inferior to others.
4. When learning something I always think whether I can use the knowledge to
improve my career.
5. I love and respect all life in the world and I support every living thing in leading
its life in its own way.
6. I know that we all eventually die and we need to live in integrity and peace, and
support each other to live in peace and to know the truth about our life and
existence.
7. I don t compare my achievements and scores with others, and keep doing what I
can do and score for myself.
8. I always think that I m the most important and keep working towards projecting
myself greater.
9. I understand my responsibilities towards the society; the environment and my
fellow members of the society that I live in and I wish all of them have a
completely independent life.
10. I love, encourage and support the freedom, creativity and peace of all the human
beings in the world irrespective of the religion, race, complexion, region and
nationality.
11. We all would like to become experts in some field so that we can utilize the
expertize for earning more money.
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TEACHING FOR TESTS VS. TEACHING FOR LEARNING
12. I m aware that I m conditioned by my parents and by the norms of the society
that I live in, in order to become an employee with higher payment and an
obliging citizen who doesn t think beyond the norms of the society.
13. I know that I m different from all others, and so I think that I have a different
way of life that is completely different from what the people around me advocate
me.
14. The world is in complete disorder with hatred, wars, intolerance, greed,
enviousness, exploitation and so on. I believe in the ideal that people all over the
world need to be enlightened about the ephemerality of life and their
achievements and carry them towards freedom and peace.
15. I believe in the imminence of human death and as a responsible human being I
keep cultivating and fostering peace and happiness in the human world, leaving
pursuit to materialistic possessions.
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TEACHING FOR TESTS VS. TEACHING FOR LEARNING
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