European Journal of Open Education and E-learning Studies
ISSN: 2501-9120
ISSN-L: 2501-9120
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
Volume 2 │ Issue 1 │ 2017
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.345163
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL
STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND PUBLIC SECTOR
TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
Winifred Ansah-Hughes1,
Isaac Owusu-Darko2i,
Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong3
1,3
Department of Education, Valley View University,
Techiman Campus, P.O. Box 183, Techiman, Ghana
2
Department of Mathematics Education, Valley View University,
Techiman Campus, P. O. Box 183, Techiman, Ghana
Abstract:
Occupational stress is a serious health problem to the individual worker both physically
and psychologically. It equally effects organizations and even the nations in terms of
productivity and financial losses. Occupational stress has in recent times received close
attention in America and Western Europe as is evident from the growing number of
literature available and the wellness programs being developed for employees in these
continents, but it does not appear to be so in developing countries as Ghana.
Occupational stress is common to all occupations but it could be disastrous for any
nation if it remains unchecked especially in the teaching field. The teacher is the kingpin
upon which every education revolves. The issue is that, there are indications of above
average occupational stress in some Ghanaian teachers; but exactly how much of
occupational stress is being experienced? This study set out to examine overall
occupational stress, find out the level of occupational stress among private and public
sector teachers in the Techiman South Circuit in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana.
Administering the Weiman Occupational Stress Scale to a sample of 88 workers drawn
from the population of 160 established that teachers of the Techiman South Circuit
experience above average levels of occupational stress with the public sector, females
and Junior High School showing the higher levels when compared to the private sector,
males and Senior High School counterparts respectively. Also supporting the Weiman
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved.
© 2015 – 2017 Open Access Publishing Group
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
occupational stress scale, a chi-square analyses showed that there is an association
between gender status and occupational stress and an association between institutional
type and occupational stress.
Keywords: private, occupational stress, public, gender
1. Introduction
Stress at work is a fact and an increasing component of present day life. Indeed, its
significance is revealed by the level of attention paid to it in many developed countries.
Life will have been very simple if our needs are automatically satisfied (Kosslyn &
Roseberg, 2006). It is however unfortunate that our everyday life leaves many stress
with little room for this kind of comfort. Stress occurs in every aspect of our life
including our social, job, education, marriages, and many others. Dr. Hans Selye
(considered the pioneer of psychological stress) warned that to be completely free from
stress is death. Some amount of stress acts as a motivating agent for achievement (Selye,
1976 as cited in Luthans, 2005). This means that some level of stress is healthy and
necessary to keep us alert and occupied. It contributes to a person's adequate
functioning in life. While some level of stress is good, intense stress can also overtax our
physical and mental resources, making us vulnerable to stress related ailments (Sarah,
2000). Stress, a pattern of cognitive appraisals, physiological responses, and behavioural
tendencies occur in response to a perceived imbalance between situational demands
and the resources needed to cope with them (Passer & Smith, 2001).
Interestingly, the job we do significantly determine our day to day activities and
decisions. As much as our jobs are of great importance to us, it can be of great stress
when care is not taken. Stress from our occupations can in an indirect way affect other
aspects of our lives, making life more complicated and difficult to live. Since we spend
most of our time at work or in doing our jobs, its effects on our lives cannot be ignored
whether positively or negative. Occupational stress can be deadly if attention is not
paid to it. Although there has not been a definite definition to what occupational stress
is, it has been captured as the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur
when the requirement of the job does not match the capabilities, resources or needs of
the worker (Sauter et al, 1999). This is to say that, if the resources, tools, skills,
conditions etc. needed by the worker to work in an organization do not correspond to
the demands of the job, then the worker get stressed.
An individual s personality may help in determining how easily stressed we
become; but we cannot ignore the fact that, there are some macro level dimensions that
European Journal of Open Education and E-learning Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 1 │ 2017
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
are unique to organization, which may contain potential stressors to the worker
(Luthans, 2005). Whilst there are different potential stressors specific to each occupation
or job, there are also some common factors which include; administrative policies and
strategies, organizational structure and design, working conditions, interpersonal
relationships, and organization processes, among others (Luthans, 2005).
Administrative policies and strategies include advances technology, competition,
downsizing, merit pay plan, rotating work shift and bureaucratic rules. Examples of
organizational structures and design include; centralization and formalization, line-staff
conflict, specialization and role ambiguity and conflicts. Little performance feedback,
lack of participation in decision-making; only downward communication and tight
control, all fall under the organizational processes. Working conditions include;
crowded work area, noise, heat, polluted air, strong odor and unsafe dangerous
conditions (Kosslyn & Roseberg, 2006; Ellis, Gordon, Neenan & Palmer, 2001; Luthans,
2005). Studies have shown that stressors outside the workplace can be related to
negative effects and feelings on the job. That is, extra-organizational stressors such as
technological change, globalization, the family, relocation, economic, financial, race and
community conditions can indirectly affect the stress level an individual may
experience at work (Luthans, 2005). Workers may also become stressed, when exposed
to prejudice regarding their age, gender, sexuality, race, ethnicity and religion (Myers,
2006).
By all definitions, the profession of teaching has a very important place in all
professions. A teacher is a kingpin in the entire system of education (Kaur, 2011).
Almost every cultures of the civilized world esteem the teacher very highly. They are
very often seen as Master
Mentor
Guide and Coach . To achieve this status,
teachers throughout the history of civilization have come up to the expectations of the
world around them.
Teaching has now become a very demanding occupation with a lot of stresses for
a teacher who has a lot of deadlines to meet and a lot of responsibilities to shoulder
besides teaching a child what are in a text book. Teachers not only have the stress of
dealing with so many diverse children on a daily basis. They are also charged with
educating and helping to mold these children into productive members of society. With
rules, regulations, guidelines, and performance expectations all around teachers can
have very high levels of stress. The job is very demanding in that it never ends.
During the past decade, various working institutions of private and public
sectors in Ghana have undergone rapid changes, such as policy changes due to
globalization, technology advancements, and increased competition as more private
institutions enter the economic market. Private institutions compete with government
European Journal of Open Education and E-learning Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 1 │ 2017
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
institutions for more market. In addition, proliferation of private enterprises in the
country has led to intense competition among these institutions, especially in the banks,
schools and hospitals. These changes may cause workers in both private and public
sectors to experience high levels of job-related stress as they try to compete with high
workloads, long hours of working and so on.
The research provides answers to the following questions;
1. To what extent is there a difference in the level of occupational stress of teachers
in private and public schools?
2. What is the influence of gender status on the level of occupational stress of
teachers?
3. To what extent is there a difference in level of occupational stress between
Junior High Schools and Senior High Schools?
2. Literature Review
2.1 Causes of Occupational Stress
The causes of occupational been looked at here in this study are the macro level
dimensional sources of stress common to organizations irrespective of the kind of
institution and sector they work in.
2.2 Role Conflict and Ambiguity
Ones role in an organization can be a cause of stress. This has to do with behaviour and
the demands that are associated with the job an individual must perform. To this effect,
ambiguity and role conflict are causes of stress. According to Luthans (2005), role
ambiguity basically is the lack of clarity about ones duties and lack of information
needed to perform a task. When there is a conflicting work demands (role conflict)
mostly occurring when one is engaged in two contrasting positions at work, role
overload occurs. (Kosslyn & Rosenberg, 2001).
2.3 Workload
In addition to multiple roles, too much or too little task demand can be a stressor to an
individual at work. Every individual has an optimum workload capacity, hence an
inadequate or excessive workload could be perceived as a psychological strain on an
individual at work (MacDonald, 2003). Workload is of two form; quantitative and
qualitative. Qualitative workload deals with the workers affection to their job where
there is a low or high self-esteem, while quantitative workload deals with period: how
much work one can complete within a timeframe (Kosslyn & Rosenberg, 2001 Sauter et
European Journal of Open Education and E-learning Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 1 │ 2017
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
al., 1999). Meeting deadlines on a regular basis and working long hours could be
stressful.
2.4 Boredom
Boredom is closely linked to the amount of workload an individual has to accomplish at
a time. Boredom can be in the form of repeating the same task over and over again or
having too little task at a time leaving room for nothing to do. Doing the same work
over and over again can be frustrating. Frustration can lead to aggressive behaviours
(Myers, 2006). That is, boredom can lead to frustration, which could also lead to
aggressive behaviours at work. When under severe stress, an individual fails to take
clear-cut decisions, re-evaluate and reassess the priorities and lifestyles and ultimately,
tend to fall into unproductive distractions (Sauter et al., 1999).
2.5 Interpersonal Relationship
Weak or poor interpersonal relationships cause job-related stress. Poor interpersonal
relationship may be the result of personal differences existing among coworkers due to
differences in culture, different upbringing and workers background. It may also be
triggered by communication breakdown in the organization (Luthans, 2005). When one
works with people who do not like him or her or there is poor social environment, and
lack of support from other co-workers could lead to stress at the workplace for the
individual facing that problem.
Bullying and hostile manners cause interpersonal difficulties at work. Stress
could also be the results of competitions and office politics that workers become
involved in. Competition could breed stereotyping and conflicts among workers of the
organization (Myers, 2008). Interpersonal relationships become so much of a stress
when the work demands interdependence (Ellis et al., 2001, Luthans, 2005). That is, an
individual worker can only achieve success in his or her assignment only when coworkers do their portion. This can be very stressing when members are not on good
terms or have interpersonal problems.
2.6 Technology Advancement
Again, the expansion of technology such as computers, pagers, smart board, cell
phones, fax machines and the internet has resulted in heightened expectations for
productivity, speed and efficiency, increasing pressure on the individual worker to
constantly operate at peak performance levels. In this case, the workers are under
constant mental stress. There is also the constant pressure to keep up with technological
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
breakthroughs and improvisations, forcing employees to learn new software all the
times (Ellis et al., 2001; Sauter et al, 1999).
Organized workplaces are going through gradual changes under intense
economic transformations and consequent pressures. Reorganizations, takeovers,
mergers, downsizing and other changes have become major stressors for employees, as
institutions try to live up to the competition to survive. These reformations have placed
high demand on individuals at work, as they try to adjust the new situation (Luthans,
2005). In Ghana where no concrete educational policy backed by law exist, both private
school heads and the sitting government do as they wish at any point in time with our
education and this has led many teachers to feel they sit on timed bomb. This situation
can in least be said to be very stressful. The peace of mind to work is lacking as the
teacher is always on the look.
2.7 Working Conditions
Furthermore, working conditions such as noise, dust, heat, humidity, lighting,
overcrowding, uncomfortable chairs, toxic chemicals (white board makers), and static
electricity are some intrinsic factors to the job that serve as stressors (Ellis et al., 2001,
Luthans, 2005). Discomfort from heat resulting from high temperatures, high humidity
and lack of airflow in the classroom can be a stressor to the teacher. Performance of
perceptual and motor task is reduced when temperatures are very high. Temperature as
a stressor delays work because of decreased performance, hence incomplete task and
deadlines are not met which can pose stress to the worker at the work place (Luthans,
2005). Work that requires critical decision, fair judgment and performance of fast or
skilled action can be affected by thermal stressors. These factors can cause different
physical ailments including allergic reactions, backaches, infections, eyestrain and
headache (Ellis et al., 2001).
2.8 Sense of Control
In addition, lacking a sense of control of the work one does at the workplace is a
stressor. Individuals perceive been left out of important decision relating to their job
and lack of say about the demands placed on them as stressful. Research has shown that
relentless stress is often endured by people with little control over the nature, style of
work and pace of work (Hafen, Karren, Fredsen & Smith, 1996).
2.9 The Teacher and Stress
Times have changed and the societies and cultures have drastically diversified, but the
duties of a teacher are basically the same, which is the transfer of knowledge to
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
successive generations. With dynamics in cultural norms and traditions in the societies
there has been a drastic change in the expectations from a teacher. Some of these
changes have limited the measures which a teacher in the past could exercise in
disciplining a student and some have put additional burden on teachers in respect to
their preparation of lessons and adopting and maintaining various teaching styles. This
is because most of the school systems prefer to maintain uniformity in all of their
branches.
Occupational stress has become increasingly common in teaching profession
largely because of increased occupational complexities and increased economic
pressure on individuals. A major source of distress among teachers is the failure of
schools to meet the social needs and jobs demands of the teachers. The teacher must be
aware of his clear role to build up the nation. Teachers are overburdened with regular
teaching load, poor working conditions, and lack of sense of control among others.
Occupational satisfaction is a necessary condition for a healthy growth of
teacher s personality. Job satisfaction and security are also important factors that to look
at when considering teacher stress. To be occupationally satisfied has more to do with
one s personality; what may get one satisfied may not be the same for another but for
job insecurity it cuts across everyone in the teaching arena. Job insecurity is a major
challenge for teachers in the private sector and unprofessional teachers in the public
sector.
In general, occupational stress arises from the working conditions/environment
of a system. When we talk of stress among teachers, many factors cause stress. School
teachers face high amounts of stress during teaching and handling students; Classroom
in developing countries such as Ghana remain overcrowded and teachers face intensive
verbal communications, prolonged standing, high volume of work load and poor
teaching equipment. Teachers are also over burdened with regular teaching work and
non-teaching work as election duties, duty in census; populations counting etc. the
teachers are often heard of complaining about.
One very interesting thing in Ghana s education is the fact that teachers among
all other professions are most often the lab rats for the implementation of systems and
Policies especially in the public sector. The effects of poor and wrong teaching do affect
the entire nation though its effects are long term as compared to other profession. Stress
among teacher is not a matter of just the teaching but both the physical and emotional
aspects in the teaching system.
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
2.10 Gender Status and Stress
In the past, women were responsible for the home. They were homemakers. That is,
until recently, relatively few women worked but today, women can be expected to
spend about 30 years in labour force (U.S department of labour, 1990). According to
Bertz and Fitzgerald (1987), men and women have different pattern of career
development However, women largely still maintain their home making duties (Weiten
& Lloyd, 1997). The reason has been that women still subordinate their career goals to
their husbands goals Unger & Crawford,
in order to maintain the family role
expected of them.
Again, in the past, many teachers were males but we are now faced with the
situation where many women can be seen in the teaching field particularly married
women. Working and managing the home can be a very stressful duty placed on
woman especially those working in the formal sector. The issue of the short maternal
leave (three months) given to woman where they come back to work with babies so
little and still are expected to do the work they were formally assigned to. This adds
more than enough stress to woman trying to balance work with family life.
2.11 Effects of Occupational Stress
Stress at work, has significant effects on both productivity of the organization and the
health of individual teacher. Stress related problems that may affect the classroom
teacher includes; mood disturbance, psychological distress, sleep disturbances, upset
stomach, headache and problems in relationships with family and friends. Workers
may also become increasingly irritable; they cannot concentrate well, and feel less
committed to their work (Sauter et al., 1999; Sarah, 2000; Luthan, 2005).
Job stress influences chronic diseases but they are more difficult to ascertain
because chronic diseases develop over relatively long periods and influenced by many
factors other than stress (Sarah, 2000). Nonetheless, there is some evidence that stress
plays a role in the development of several types of chronic health problems including
cardiovascular diseases, musculoskeletal disorders, and psychological disorders such as
lowered self-esteem, poor decision making among others (Luthan, 2005; Ellis et al.,
2001). When stressful situations go unresolved, the body is kept in a constant state of
activation, which increases the rate of wear and tear to biological systems (Sauter et al.,
1999). Ultimately, fatigue or damage results, and the ability of the body to repair and
defend itself can become seriously compromised. As a result, the risk of injury or
disease goes up.
The effect of occupational stress on the organization is observed through high
absenteeism, decreased commitment, increasing unsafe working practices, high staff
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
turnover, poor job performance and job dissatisfaction (Ellis et al; 2001). If an institution
observes this kind of behaviour, then it means that workers may be highly stressed
emotionally, psychologically or physically and that attention should be given to it.
These behaviours exhibited by workers will certainly affect the production rate of goods
and services that the institution brings out. Injuries occurring at the workplace cause
more financial strain on the company as the company suffers with medical cost. At the
end of the day, the economy of the nation will be highly affected.
3. Methodology
This chapter gives an overview of data collection procedures involved in the study. The
content of this chapter includes the research design, population, sampling techniques,
instrumentation, validity/reliability, data collection and data analysis. The study
followed a quantitative approach. The rationale for choosing this method is because the
research intends to contribute to those quantitative studies that had been done on job
stress, but limited its scope to the teaching field in Techiman.
3.1 Research Design
The research design adopted for this study is descriptive survey design. According to
Gall, Gall, Joyce and Walter (1996), descriptive survey enables the researcher to gather
information from a cross-section of a given population. It also involves asking the same
set of questions often prepared in the form of written questionnaire or ability test of a
large number of individuals. Such a study reports the way things are and draws
responses from a wide range of people (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000).
3.2 Population of the Study
Population of the study constituted teachers belonging to both the private and
government sector school of SHS and JHS in the Techiman South Circuit of Techiman in
Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana numbering one hundred and sixty (160).
3.3 Sample and Sampling Techniques
This sample size was achieved by the use of the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) table of
sample size determination. The population was 160 therefore based on the table; a
sample size of 113 was employed. This study was limited particularly to teachers
handling JHS and SHS students. Stratified and simple random sampling techniques
were used to gather participants.
European Journal of Open Education and E-learning Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 1 │ 2017
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
3.4 Instrumentation
The instrument used for the study was the questionnaire. 88 representing 78% of the
teachers completely filled in questionnaire given the researcher a high confident level of
generalizing the findings of the study.
3.5 Data Analysis Procedure
Data entry and analysis was done using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS)
Version 16, a data analysis program. For qualitative variables, data are presented using
descriptive statistics in the form of frequencies and percentages and for quantitative
variables ranges, means and standard deviations. The scores obtained by the scale in
Part 2 of the questionnaire for this study are first chi-squared analyzed to establish
dependence among variable. The scores of the questionnaire are again compared to
baseline scores achieved by Weiman and other researchers in their application of the
Weiman Occupational Stress Scale (WOSS) to subjects from a variety of occupations.
The reliability coefficient of the scale used in this study was found to be 0.85. Though
this is not as excellent as the 0.90 achieved by Weiman, it is good enough to justify the
relevance of comparing scores obtained in the study to baseline averages of the WOSS.
C. Weiman designed a standardized instrument in 1978 for measuring perceived
occupational stress. The Weiman Scale is also scored by adding together the total
number of points for the 15 questions and then dividing the sum by the number the
number of test questions. The range that can be scored by a subject is a maximum of 75
and a minimum of 15. The greater the score, the more occupational stress is being
reported. Applying the scale to a wide variety of occupations, Weiman and other
researchers established a baseline mean score of 33.75 and individual average of 2.25.
Scores below this baseline are considered to indicate the absence of stress whereas those
above indicate its presence in varying degrees.
Part 2 of the questionnaire was used to establish a baseline score for the
participants in the study using means, cross tabulations and bivariate analytical
techniques, groups were compared to find out differences.
4. Analysis and Interpretation of Results
The result of the study is demonstrated in the tables below:
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics and sector categories of teachers in the sample
Sector
Institution
Gender
No. of Respondents
Percentage (%)
JHS
Female
4
4.5
27
30.7
Male
Private
SHS
JHS
Public
SHS
Female
1
1.1
Male
9
10.2
Female
11
12.5
Male
12
13.7
Female
6
6.8
Male
18
20.5
Total
88
100
Table 1 shows that there are 88 respondents in this study. Out of 88 school teachers, 41
(46.4%) are private school teachers and the remaining 47 (53.6%) are public school
teachers. Of this number, 22 (24.9%) are females and 66 (75.1%) are males. Again Senior
High School SHS has
. % respondents whiles Junior High School JHS has
(61.4%) respondents. Among the private school teachers, 31(35.2%) belong to junior
high schools and the remaining 10 (11.3%) belong to senior high schools. Out of the
private junior high school, 4(4.5%) are females, 27 (30.7%) are males whiles those of the
private senior high school comprised of 1(1.1%) female and 9(10.2%) males. Among the
47 public school teachers, 23(26.2%) of the teachers are in junior high schools and the
remaining 24 (27.3 %) are in the senior high schools. Within the public schools also,
there are 11(13.5%) females and 12(13.7%) males in JHS. Those of the public SHS
comprised of 6 (6.8%) females and 18 (20.5%) males.
From Table 1 it is seen that there are more males 66 (75.1%) than females (24.9%)
teaching higher school in the education ladder. This could be attributed to the fact that
there are more males than females in the teaching field of education. This issue of
percentage differences in gender status of teachers weighs way back to women in the
kitchen and men at official job leaving more males in the field of official job with
women gradually following in the Techiman South Circuit and Ghana as a whole.
Table 1 gives an indication that the percentage of teachers in the public sector
(53.6%) is 7.2 higher than the private sector (46.4%). This disparity could be the fact that
unlike in the public schools were teachers strictly teach one subject, in the private sector
schools some teachers teach more than one subject. Some teachers of the elementary
level may teach certain subjects in the junior high levels in private schools whiles still
holding a permanent class. In addition, most private sector teachers are part-time
teacher from public sector schools especially in the senior high schools. This practice in
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
the private sector schools may account for the low population in teacher numbers hence
the lower percentage.
4.1 Occupational Stress Results
Analysis was done by performing a chi-square test to establish dependence among
variables. Part ‛ of the questionnaire yielded a Cronbach s ‚lpha coefficient of . .
When reliability analyses was done, showing a good internal consistency. Despite this
fact the coefficient is not as excellent as the 0.90 coefficient established by the WOSS. It
suggests closeness enough to which it can be compared to the baselines by the WOSS.
3,479 points was the total score obtained in this survey of 88 teachers. This computes
into a mean score of 39.53 per participant which translates into an individual average
score of 2.64 on the five-point scale (Table 2). According to the WOSS, the higher the
average score and individual mean score the higher the stress levels facing the
respondent.
A. Research Question One: To what extent is there a difference in the level of
occupational stress of teachers in private and public schools?
Table 2: Association between occupational stress and sector type of respondent
(n=88)
I take work home due to high workload
Never Occasionally Often Usually Mostly
Count
Private
10
Count
Count
13
10
Count
Count
3
Chisquare
5
Sector type of
Chi-sq=7.439
respondent
Df=40.114
Public
10
11
7
14
5
Table 2 shows that at an alpha of 5%, chi-square value of 7.44 and a degree of freedom
of 4 there is a significant dependence (sig. 0.11) in occupational stress and sector type
respondent of respondent. This result agrees with the generic view point that there is
fundamental difference ((DeSantis& Durst, 1996; Freeman, 1996) between the two
sectors even in terms of the level of stress they go through.
The Figure 1 show teachers in the public sector rather than those in the private
sector are stressed. The public sector shows about 85% who responded of usually
having too much workload to complete hence they take some home whiles about 20%
of those in the private sector responded of usually having too much workload to
complete.
European Journal of Open Education and E-learning Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 1 │ 2017
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
Figure 1: Showing a bar graph of sector type of respondent and having too much workload
Table 3: Average score and individual score for Private and Public Sector schools (n=88)
Respondent in Sector type
Av. Score
Individual Score
Private sector
38.17
2.55
Public sector
40.72
2.72
Total
39.53
2.64
The score for all participants ranges from a low score of 25 (1.7) to a high score of 55
(3.7) on the five point scale. The 39.53 and 2.64 mean score and individual average score
respectively of this research represent about 17% high score than the WOSS mean score
of 33.75 and individual average score of 2.25. From the framework of the WOSS, there is
a strong suggestion of occupational stress among teachers since with the WOSS
instrument, the higher the score, the greater the stress in the subject. The average score
of 39.53 is 17% above that of the WOSS baseline. Although a small segment 19% (17
respondents) of the sample was scored below the WOSS average, the overall average
supports the proposition that teachers experience above average levels of occupational
stress. Another segment scored as high as 55 indicating the presence of a very
significant level of stress. This goes to support that assertion that the teaching
profession has a lot of stress.
It is important to note that the mean score for teachers in the public schools is
6.7% higher than that of private sector teachers in the study. This finding also supports
the proposition that in the field of education, public sector teachers in this area are more
stressed as against their private school s counterparts. The result does contradict some
findings in the literature review (Thomas, 2005; Tankha, 2006) which suggested that
private sector workers are more stressed as compare to those in the public sector. On
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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
the other hand, it supports the research done by the Chartered Institute of Personnel
and Development (Personnel Today, 2003) that public sector workers are more stressed
than their colleagues in the private sector.
The results coming from the analysis indicating high stress in public sector than
private is an interesting one as it goes to nullify the common notion that private sector
workers are more stressed to their colleagues in the public sector. Usually supervision
serves as a yardstick for this proposition but the results have shown a contradictory
proposition when a variety of stressors were considered.
This goes to suggest that the different kinds of stressor that happen at the work
place poses a lot of stress at work and that supervision only is not a true reflection to
conclude one is stressed or not. Teachers in the public sector face constant threats from
the governments, salaries been held for longer times only to come sometimes in years,
the poor classroom and other school conditions among others that teachers must work
in. Unlike the public schools, the private schools put their school environments to neat
and nice order or may at least try their very best as this goes to attract some parents to
bring their wards to the school.
Though workload may be much in the private sector schools, the student to
teacher ratio in most public sector schools is nothing to write home about. Very large
classroom sizes to manage at the same time trying to bring the best out of students can
be a frustrating thing to deal with. It is no doubt that some of these thing maybe
accounting for the high stress faced by teachers in the public sector.
B. Research Question Two: What is the influence of gender status on the level of
occupational stress of teachers?
Table 4: Association between gender status and occupational stress in public and private sector
I dread going to work lately due to stress
Never Occasionally Often Usually Mostly
Private
Sector of
respondent
Public
Gender of
respondent
Gender of
respondent
Male
11
10
11
3
1
Female
1
0
3
1
0
Male
9
4
9
2
6
Female
7
2
2
1
5
Chi-square
Chisq=3.422
Df=40.490
Chisq=2.382
Df=40.666
Table 4 describes a chi-square analysis at an alpha of 0.05. In the private sector, with a
chi-square value of 3.42 at degree of freedom of 4, showing that there is an association
(sig. 0.49) between gender status and job stress. Also in the public sector with a chi-
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
square value of 2.38 at a degree of freedom of 4, there is an association (sig. 0.66)
between gender status and job stress of teachers.
Table 5: Average and individual score for the gender status of respondents
Respondent
Av. Score
Individual score
Male
39.21
2.61
Female
40.50
2.70
Total
39.53
2.64
Table 5 shows that the average score for male teachers (39.21) is approximately 3%
lower than the average score for female teachers (40.50) in the circuit. This average
mean of 40.50 scored by female teachers is nearly 6.7 (20%) points higher than that of
the WOSS benchmark of 33.75. These results also supported the proposition that female
teachers experience a higher level of occupational stress as proposed by some other
researches done in the past (Michael et al., 2009; Murphy,1986) though the stressors for
the various study across the different research works are not the same.
Figure 2 shows female teachers in the public sector to be stressed as compared to
their male counterparts in the private sector. About 30% of females in the public sector
responded mostly stressed while about 11% of males in the public sector responded
mostly. What is seen in the public was contrary to what happens in the private sector as
males (12%) responded mostly stressed.
Figure 2: A 3-D bar chart showing sector type of respondent, gender status and
Respondent dreading of going to work lately due to stress
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
Table 6: Average Score and individual score for gender status in private and
public sector schools (n=88)
Sector
Gender
Private
Public
Av. Score
Individual score
Male
38.22
2.55
Female
37.80
2.52
Male
40.40
2.69
Female
41.29
2.75
38.53
2.64
Total
It is equally revealing in table 4.3.1 that though the average mean score in general for
females (table 4.3) is 3% higher than male, males rather than females in the private
sector turn to have slightly higher mean score (38.22) than the mean score of their
female colleague (37.80). This represent approximately 1% points higher in males than
female workers in the private schools. On the other hand, the revise is seen in the public
sector teachers. The average score of female teachers is about 2% points higher than
their male colleagues in the public sector. Comparing mean score of males in private
sector and females in the public to the baseline mean scores show that male in private
schools and females in public schools are 13% and 22% respectively higher than the
baseline score by WOSS. This analysis goes to explain that males of private sector
schools are more stressed as compared to their female colleagues whiles in public
schools female teachers are more stressed.
Accounting for the high levels of stress shown by female teachers may be related
to balancing work-life and home-life. For most women, a lot of stress can arise from the
conflicting demands of these two variables especially as there appears no long term
tendency in Ghana for housework to be taken over or shared by men. Culturally in
Ghana, women have to work inside the home as well as outside.
The female teacher may occupy several positions at home but very few at the
workplace. ‚t home, she is the housewife, mother and even sometimes breadwinner
at the same time, homemaker. Combining these demanding situations can be an
overdose of stress if attention is not given to it. Before going to the workplace, she may
already be experiencing some level of stress from the pressures of the home.
In addition to this, women are frequently exposed to sexual harassment at work.
For instance, promotions could be withheld until sexual advances are accepted. They
are often also the objects of sexual jokes and innuendos. Sexual advances or harassment
can actually make the working environment hostile, intimidating or offensive for the
teacher resulting in higher levels of stress.
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
C. Research Question Three: To what extent is there a difference in level of
occupational stress between Junior High School and Senior High School?
Table 7: Chi-square analysis of institutional type respondent work and working under tight
deadlines among private and public sector teacher
I work under tight time deadlines
Never Occasionally Often Usually Mostly
Count
JHS
Sector type
of
respondent
Private
Type of
institution
SHS
JHS
Public
Type of
institution
SHS
Count Count
Chi-
Count Count
10
4
9
6
2
4
2
4
0
0
7
6
4
3
3
6
4
6
4
4
square
Chi-sq=3.260
Df=40.515
Chi-sq=1.142
Df=40.888
Table 7 shows that at an alpha of 0.05 there is a significant dependence (sign. 0.52) in
occupational stress level and type of institution of teachers in the private sector. Also, at
0.05 alpha values indicate a significant association (sign. 0.88) in occupational stress
levels teachers and the type of institution in the public sector. The results from the table
suggest that the occupational stress levels of teachers irrespective of the type of sector
faced by teachers is associated with the institution (JHS/SHS) the teacher works.
Table 8: Average and individual score for the institution type of respondents (n=88)
Respondent
Av. Score
Individual Score
JHS
40.39
2.69
SHS
38.18
2.55
Total
39.53
2.64
Table 8 shows that the average score for JHS teachers (40.39) is approximately 5.5%
higher than the average score for SHS teachers (38.18). The average score obtained by
both JHS and SHS teachers in addition to their individual scores against the average
score and individual score of 33.75 and 2.25 respectively of the WOSS shows that
teachers in the various institutions are all stressed. This average of 40.39 scored by JHS
teachers is nearly 20% points higher than the 33.75 WOSS benchmark. These results also
support the fact that JHS teachers experience a higher level of occupational stress.
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
Table 9: Average score and individual score for Institutions types in Private and
Public Sector schools (private, n=41; public, n=47)
Sector
Private
Public
Institution
Av. Score
Individual Score
JHS
38.71
2.58
SHS
36.5
2.43
JHS
42.65
2.84
SHS
38.88
2.59
39.53
2.64
Total
Table 9 shows that JHS teacher face a higher stress levels as compared to their SHS
counterparts observing from their average and individual scores. JHS (38.71/2.58)
teachers are about 6% points higher than their SHS (36.50/2.43) colleagues in the private
sector. Also, in the public sector JHS (42.65/2.84) teachers are about 10% higher in score
than their SHS (38.88/2.59) teachers.
The outcome of JHS teachers been more stressed to their SHS colleagues could be
the result kind of preparation that goes on in the JHS toward the writing of the Basic
Education Certificate Examination (BECE). This examination is the first external exams
taken by all JHS students in forms three
under the Ghana Education Service. With
this exam, more student get agitated and pressured hence putting pressures in the long
run on their teachers. Even for some schools, forms two and three students do not do on
vacation giving both the students and teachers no time to rest and relieve themselves of
the terms stress. These kinds of thing do not happen in most secondary schools across
Techiman and even Ghana as a whole.
There are more elementary and junior high schools as compared to senior high
schools in Techiman and Ghana as a whole hence the BECE taken by student is to help
place them in the fewer senior high schools around. In this regard, most JHS teachers
are under constant pressures to make sure that all their students pass this exam. In
addition to this, JHS levels make the beginnings of adolescent life which has so many
challenges for students. Hence, teachers at the JHS level teaching these students suffer
as the students try to understand the new changes happening to them as compare to
those of the SHS level who may have come to understand themselves better.
In addition to these, the teacher to student ratio is much lower in Junior High
School than Senior High School. The student population in the junior level is higher
than the secondary level especially the public sector where free education is practiced.
Also, the various courses done in the secondary level gives room for classes to be
reduced to smaller fractions at some point in time. Unlike the secondary schools, the
junior high students all study the same subjects and this brings about putting all the
students in one class for subject teachers to come and teacher. Teaching and
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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
maintaining order in large classes could be very stressful. In some schools where the
classes are put into small fractions for effective teaching and learning more teachers are
not brought in to teach the different classes but the same teacher turn to be the ones still
teaching the various classes created.
5. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 Summary of Findings
The objective of this study was to examine the level of occupational stress of teachers in
the Techiman South Circuit on their Sector type. A review of the literature found
multiple sources identifying stress as common to all occupations. Literature was
reviewed on the nature of occupational stress in terms of sources, individual
characteristics (i.e. personality traits that predispose the worker to varying levels of
stress), sector types, the teacher, gender issues and institutional types.
The study drew heavily from the perspective in which occupational stress is
viewed negatively. Viewed in negative terms as the feelings of pressure placed on us by
others, occupational stress has been captured as the harmful physical and emotional
responses that occur when the requirement of the job does not match the capabilities,
resources or needs of the worker. It is the rising tension caused in us by any
characteristic of the job environment, be it excessive demands or insufficient resources
to meet a need, and whose intensity and enduring nature can have a detrimental effect
on our ability to adjust and our physical health as well.
5.2 Conclusions
Findings from the study supported the proposition that teachers in general experience
above average work-related stress. The teachers who completed the survey instrument
scored an individual average of 2.64 on a five-point scale. Past administrations of the
Weiman Occupational Stress Scale by Weiman and many other researchers yielded a
baseline score of 2.25. The teachers in this study therefore scored on average of 17%
higher than the calculated WOSS baseline and with the Weiman Occupational Stress
Scale, the higher the score, the higher the stress.
In addition, the results also supported the proposition that public school teachers
experience higher levels of stress. The average test score for participants in this category
was approximately 7% points higher than that those in the private schools. The notion
that stress is high in the private sector has been contradicted by this study. Tight
supervision and workload as mentioned before is usually used as a measure for stress
among workers by the lay-man, but from studies it has been shown that there are many
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Winifred Ansah-Hughes, Isaac Owusu-Darko, Patricia Ndiwe Pensan Acheampong
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
stressors affecting workers. Tight supervision and workload are just but two of these
many stressors. Using many other variables as done in this study has indicated
otherwise the results.
Again, the results supported that female teachers were more stressed as
compared to their male colleagues. Women experience several problems at work that
have been associated with stress. For instance, sexual harassment at work whereby
genuine rights are made conditional upon giving in to advances is another stressor
peculiar to the female teachers. Such advances in addition to sexual jokes and
innuendoes can create a hostile, intimidating or offensive working environment for the
teacher resulting in higher levels of stress.
Depending on the cultural setting, balancing work-life and home-life can entail
more stress for the woman than for the man. In Ghana s cultural environment, women
have to work inside the home as well as outside. The female is thus often overloaded
from home before getting to work. She may therefore already be experiencing some
level of stress.
Furthermore, the result supported that stress is high among Junior High School
teacher than those of Senior High School teachers. This difference in stress could be
attributed to a number of factors that teachers face. The first external examination is
written at the junior high schools, the teacher to student ration is much lower in the JHS
and the kind of competition that goes on among the different JHS among others are the
contribution reason for a higher stress in the Junior High School than the Senior High
Schools.
Finally, conclusions from this study should be viewed with the necessary
cautions. The survey instrument developed for measuring perceived work stress of
teachers contains just 15 questions. A more extensive set of questions might be more
reliable and may provide a lot more accuracy in portraying occupational stress. In
addition, the instrument has no built-in scale to test for consistency. An instrument with
a scale built in to allow researchers assess the tendency of respondents to distort their
responses either positively or negatively could provide better data.
None the less, this study offers some insight into an overall occupational stress
and its potential risks for teachers in Ghana especially those at Techiman South Circuit.
Results of the study may help teachers and their institutions to become more sensitive
and aware of the increased risks and difficulties they face in terms of occupational
stress. Occupational stress emits negative effects for both the employee and the
organization and it is important not to consider occupational stress as a mere personal
issue for the employee to deal with alone and in isolation.
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5.3 Recommendations
A first step towards preventing occupational stress from escalating into unbearable
proportions for any teacher is to build awareness about it and how it relates to the
teaching profession. The teacher should understand that in teaching operational
workloads are expected parts of the job. He or she should be convinced to accept that
the challenge of the profession is one of the main reasons why he or she chose the
profession. Such education and guidance will make teachers consider operational
demands specific to their jobs to be the most meaningful and the most motivating
stressors.
However, high severity stressors may nevertheless continue to pose risks. These
can then be handled through the institution of formalized peer support and guidance
systems within schools. With such an intervention, teachers can have co-colleagues and
professionals or leaders to talk to about difficult topics or events or situations whose
intensity could cause trauma or extreme stress and to which they have been exposed.
One very common intervention that needs to be recommended for reducing
stress is a system of worker participatory methods which gives workers opportunities
to participate in decisions and actions affecting their job. One cannot expect positive
health when workers feel left out of decision-making processes of the organization.
They should be consulted on their views about issues and involved in setting and
managing of the school. If workers are given the opportunity to participate in decisions
and actions affecting their jobs, the perception of stress would be reduced. They are
motivated intrinsically and this alone can help reduce stress massively among teachers.
It is very important for a teacher to have a hobby which is totally different from
what he teaches at school. Music, gardening, hiking and painting are a few examples of
hobbies which a teacher may adopt. These can give them an outlet and take their minds
off from the problems that they face at school. This is one way of getting the day s stress
off from their minds (Kaur, 2011).
With regards to further research, the first recommendation to state is that studies
need to be conducted in Ghana on occupational stress of teachers. Whilst there is
sufficient evidence in several other countries to believe that work stress is a factor
among teachers, the literature is remarkably silent on Ghana. Studies are needed to
enhance the understanding of stress in Ghana and its effect on student in particular.
In add to this, because school heads, supervisors and policymakers are largely
responsible for creating the environment in which teachers work, it is important to
explore interventions that will reduce the stress experienced by these categories.
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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS LEVEL AMONG PRIVATE AND
PUBLIC SECTOR TEACHERS IN THE TECHIMAN SOUTH CIRCUIT
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