European Journal of Social Sciences Studies ISSN: 2501-8590 ISSN-L: 2501-8590 Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/soc 10.5281/zenodo.164130 Volume 1│Issue 2│2016 SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA Ayeni, Gabriel Oluseguni Ekiti State Community and Social Development Agency, Ado, Ekiti, Nigeria Abstract: Every nation in the world, developed or developing has a number of the population living below the poverty line. There has been explosive growth in global urban population as a result of natural population growth and rural to urban migration. Most inhabitants in World's cities experience urban poverty. There is the need to know who the poor are and where they are located hence, this study focuses on the evaluation of intra-urban poverty of Ado- Ekiti through the application of Geographical Information Systems. The data used for the study were collected through the administration of 510 copies of well-structured questionnaire. The Stratified Random Sampling technique was used in the administration of the questionnaire and the result was subjected to Factor Analysis Statistics. The following factors: Income, Housing and Housing characteristics (14.65%), Commerce and Communication (8.98%), Educational facilities (5.72%), Roads and Drainages (4.99%) and Water facilities (4.08%) were mapped. It was discovered that there was a spatial variation in the intra-urban poverty of the capital city. The farm settlement ward was found to be the poorest compared to other wards. It was recommended that Geographical Information Systems should be applied to test-run some of the developmental policies and programmes before the actual implementation by the government and other donor agencies. Keywords: factor analysis, geostatic analysis, inverse distance weighted, poverty, geographical information systems Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved Published by Open Access Publishing Group ©2015. 1 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA Introduction There is no unanimously accepted definition of poverty. As a matter of fact, it is almost never defined in itself, but through other concepts, such as growth, well-being, exclusion or equity. Poverty encompasses inadequate income and denial of the basic necessities such as education, health services, clean water and sanitation (United Nations, 2007). Poverty, being heterogeneous with multi-dimensional links to problems of hunger, illiteracy, diseases, child and maternal mortality is a fundamental challenge facing Africa as well as the rest of the World in the 21st century (Carly, Jenkins and Smith, 2001). Poverty is a mass phenomenon in sub- Sahara Africa, including Nigeria. The available statistical facts on poverty in Nigeria indicate the following:   35% of the population lives in extreme poverty;  almost 52% live on less than a dollar a day, equivalent of N320 per day;  54% are poor in relative terms; poverty incidence is highest in North East zone (63%), followed by North West 62.9%), North Central (62.3%), South-South (51.1%), South West (42%) and South  East (34.3%); about 63% of people living in the rural areas are poor compared with 41% in urban areas (National Planning Commission, 2007). In recent decades, there has been explosive growth in global urban populations. In developing countries, 40% to 60% of urban dwellers have inadequate sanitation (Tipping et al, 2005), and slum-dwellers (urban poor) are the most vulnerable to sanitation-related diseases because they are the most exposed to unmanaged human excreta and waste (Peterson et al, 2007). Africa is currently experiencing the highest rate of urbanization, with a four-fold increase in urban dwellers anticipated between 1990 and 2020, to reach 500 million people (Ndahlahwa, 2005). In tandem with this massive shift has come what Tipping, Adom and Tiaijuka, (2005) call "the rapid urbanization of poverty and ill-health" and the growth and densification of slums. The urban growth is attributed to both natural population growth and rural to urban migration. Urbanization contributes to sustained economic growth which is critical to poverty reduction. The economies of scale and agglomeration in cities attract investors and entrepreneurs which is good for overall economic growth. Cities also provide opportunities for many, particularly the poor who are attracted by greater job prospects, the availability of services, and for some, an escape from constraining social and cultural traditions in rural villages. Yet, city life can also present conditions of overcrowded living, congestion, unemployment, lack of social and community networks, stark inequalities, and crippling social problems such as crime and violence. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 2 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA In Nigeria, the urbanization process is similar to what obtains in several other developing countries; as the growth and complexity of human settlements and in particular the rate of urbanization has been phenomenal (Ujoh et al., 2010). Considering its 2006 population figure of over 140 million people- the highest in Sub-Saharan Africa (Ajanlekoko, 2001; FRN, 2007; Jiboye, 2011a, Ayeni and Adebayo, 2016); available data however shows that the country has been growing at the rate of 5.5% annually from 1980 to 1993, and recently, its growth has increased to the rate of 5.8%, which has resulted in a total urban population of 62.66 million people (or, 43% of the national population). By projection, this proportion is expected to increase to more than 60% by 2025 (UN, 2007). Consequently, Nigeria has one of the highest urban growth rates, having cities ranked among the fastest growing in the world. Not only is the country experiencing one of the fastest rates of urbanization in the world, its experience has been unique in scale, pervasiveness and historical antecedents. This process has resulted in a very dense network of urban centres (Oladunjoye, 2005); thereby constituting a major problem to the urban residents whose quality of life and living conditions have deteriorated considerably (Ajala, 2005; Jiboye, 2009; 2011a). However, it has been established that the degrading condition of the cities' environment in most developing nations affects the socio-economic and national development (Ogunleye, 2005). Therefore, a major developmental challenge facing the nations, particularly those within the developing world, is how to cope with the increasing urbanization and minimize its adverse consequences on the cities' environment as well as overall wellbeing of the people (Jiboye, 2011b). The concept of city as being heterogeneous shows that, there is no single average welfare indicator that can present an overall urban condition that will give a correct picture of poverty within a city. In cities, the poor and rich-with their different levels of assets – live together, and there are significant intra-urban differentials in social, environmental, and health conditions (Stephens, and others, 1997). Manifestations of poverty in urban areas can be strongly site-specific. It is important to know the social and physical conditions of different groups and neighbourhoods within the city, the forms of deprivations that they suffer, and their numbers and characteristics. Since the creation of Ekiti State on the 1st of October 1996, the capital town has been expanding at a phenomenal rate to accommodate the ever- increasing population emanating from rural-urban migration. As the state capital, human influx has been on continuous rate that the infrastructural amenities cannot cope with population expansion. This has led to a situation where many find it difficult to meet their daily needs and only succeeded in falling below the poverty line. Traditionally, psychological theories of poverty focus more on the individual and their behaviour while sociological theories of poverty emphasise the role of the European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 3 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA social environment (Carr and Sloan, 2003). The economist is more concerned about the income of an individual and the relative power of commanding goods and services but the geographer is more interested in the location of the urban poor because there is an indisputable relationship between poverty and geographic location (Ayeni and Bankole, 2015). In this wise, there is the need to answer the question "where are the poor located?" This study therefore, employed an integrated vision of urban poverty by considering both spatial and non-spatial components to evaluate the intra-urban poverty of Ado- Ekiti with the tool of Geographical Information System (GIS). 1.1 Objective of the Study The aim of the study is to evaluate the spatial distribution of intra-urban poverty of Ado- Ekiti using Geographical Information System. 2. The Study Area Ado -Ekiti is the capital city of Ekiti State. It is located on the latitude 70 40' North of the Equator and latitude 500 16' east of the Greenwich Meridian and shares common boundaries with Irepodun/Ifedore Local Government, Ekiti South West and Gbonyin Local Government (Adebayo and Kolawole, 2010). Politically, the Local Government is delineated into thirteen wards (Fig. 1).The study area is mainly an upland zone rising 250 metres above the sea level. It has within the area underlain by metamorphic rocks of the basement complex with rugged range of hills characterising the landscape. The study area enjoys tropical climate with two distinct seasons: the rainy season (April - October) and the dry season (November - March). Temperature ranges between 210c and 280c with high humidity. As the State capital, the rapid pace of urbanization has brought about various environmental challenges like pressure on the available socio-infrastructural facilities, deforestation, housing deficit, road congestion, all resulting to urban poverty. 3. Study Methods For the purpose of this study, both primary and secondary sources of data were employed. Transect walks and Direct Interview was used to collect data on the location of each of the thirteen wards that make up the capital city. Opinion and community leaders were engaged in transect walk to move round and helped to determine the boundaries of the wards. Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to capture the locational data of the thirteen wards that make up the urban centre. The data were later mapped using GIS Arcview 8.3 software (Fig. 1). European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 4 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA A total of 510 copies of the questionnaire were distributed using systematic random sampling technique. Out of the 13 wards, 7 wards were identified for the administration of the questionnaire (Fig. 1). After the first electoral ward, (Idofin - 01), every other wards were picked respectively. This shows that every ward has equal chance of being picked. An average of 73 copies of the questionnaire were administered in each ward. Having identified the first household, every 4th household was picked. The results of the collated data using SPSS version 10 were subjected to factor analysis statistics. The over 100 poverty variables converged at the 25th rotation into 14 poverty factors (Appendices I & II). For proper urban poverty mapping, data for the other wards that were not considered in the course of questionnaire administration were captured using Advanced Spatial Statistics tool - Geostatic Analytical tool called Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW). IDW is based on the algorithm of distance with the assumption that things that are close to one another are more alike than those that are farther apart. Those measured values closest to the prediction location will have more influence on the predicted value than those farther away (Watson and Philip, 1985). IDW therefore, assumes that each measured point has a local influence that diminishes with distance. It determines the power function (p) value by minimizing the Root Mean Square Prediction Error (RMSPE). An optimal value for the power can be considered to be where the minimum mean absolute error is at its lowest. IDW relies mainly on the inverse of the distance raised to the power. The RMSPE is the statistic that is calculated from cross-validation. In cross-validation, each measured point is removed and compared to the predicted value for the location. The RMSPE is a summary statistic quantifying the error of the prediction surface. 4. Results and Discussion Ado – Ekiti has thirteen electoral wards. However, seven wards were purposively selected as follows: Ereguru, Okesa, Dalimore, Idofin, Odolofin, Oke Ila and farm settlements. It should be noted that data for other wards were derived from the application of Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW), one of the tools of geo-statistical analyst. The major five factors of poverty, considering the factor loadings were considered as follows: 4.1 Income, Housing and Housing Characteristics Housing and housing characteristics include the type of building like face-to-face, flat, storey building, duplex, etc.; number of people living in the building, number of floors, number of rooms, types of toilets, bathrooms, kitchens, age of building and materials European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 5 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA used for the construction. Okesa and Dallimore wards have high average income distribution among the populace while Oke-Ila and Inisa wards have medium level of average income and Ijigbo, Irona, ereguru, Okeyinmi, Idolofin, Ijoka and Igbehin wards have relatively low average income distribution (Fig ii). This equally correlated positively with the types of building and housing characteristics in these wards. This shows that, wards with high average income distribution equally have high standard of houses with the required urban services while the ones with low average income distribution have low standard of houses and poor urban services (Fig. ii). In the low average income areas, face-to-face structure dictated the types of building while in high income areas; modern buildings like duplexes, storey buildings and the ones on flat basis were common. This is not to say that we cannot find some isolated cases where flat-based structures and even, duplexes were found in low average income areas and by extension, face-to-face structure were found in wards with high average income. The wards with low standard of housing characteristics were majorly inhabited and populated by the indigenes and old people while the elites were settlers from other parts of the state and far beyond. Most at times, the low and even medium housing wards have bathrooms, toilets and kitchens detached from the main building, hence, usually cover longer distances (high mean distances) to access these facilities. Number of households using such urban facilities was very high compared to the medium and high income wards. Since only few wards exhibited the characteristics of affluence, there is the need for urban re-structuring that will pave way for the urban poor to have more and easy access to urban services. 4.2 Commerce and Communication Gadgets More wards exhibited the characteristics of commercial centres. All the wards that share boundaries with the Central Business Districts (CBD), of the town have high commercial activities (Fig. III). Ereguru, Okeyinmi, Ijoka and Irona wards share high commercial activities compared to Inisa, parts of Dallimore, Okesa,Idofin and Idolofin wards with medium commercial activities while some parts of Ijigbo, Okesa, Oke-Ila and the farm settlement wards experienced low commercial activities compared to others. The commercial activities are very high at the urban centre (CBD) and fades out with longer distance from the centre (Fig. III). This is the effects of distance decay theory. For example, at the farm settlement ward, trading activities commonly found were the sales of agricultural products like plantain, yam, banana, kolanuts etc. The low population of people at the urban fringes encouraged farm products to be transported to the main urban centre for sale. The level of the usage of communication gadgets like television sets, radio, musical gadgets, handstes and even, computers (e-mailing) was high in parts of Okesa, European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 6 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA Oke-Ila, Dallimore, Okeyinmi wards than in Idofin, Idolofin, Inisa and Ijigbo wards. Today, there is a high usage of computers in the wards within the urban town too than the farm settlement ward where majority of them were illiterate farmers compared to the educated ones (and even, students of higher institutions) that reside in the former wards( Fig. III). However, due to the fact that some communities like Erifun and Ayoko are in farm settlement ward, the presence of students from the Federal Polytechnic, Ado and Afe Babalola University increased the usage of communication gadgets. At the low and medium commercial activities, small shops especially open market shops predominate the commercial landscape while we have shopping malls and super market, lock-up shops that were inter twined with open market shops in the high commercial centres. 4.3 Roads and Drainages The urban centre is transverse by a major dual-carriage road. Apart from this, some secondary arteries were served with tarred roads. Part of Oke-Ila, Idofin and Okesa wards enjoyed a relative dense networks while Inisa, Dallimore, Idolofin, Igbehin, Ereguru and Okeyinmi wards have a relatively medium road network while the farm settlement, part of Oke- Ila and Ijigbo wards were poorly served with road networks (Fig.IV). Access roads to some of the communities in the wards were mainly untarred and some seasonal. There is the need to create more access roads to encourage the movement of farm produce to urban markets for sales. Most of the new developed areas in the urban settlement were not accessible by roads, hence a major problem to vehicle users. In places where we have accessible roads, there were poor drainage systems, no good culverts or bridges. Thus, easy movement was hampered especially in the rainy season where most places were inundated with floods. Example of these is found in parts of Dallimore, Inisa, Irona, Igbehin wards (Fig. IV). 4.4 Educational Facilities The supply and access to educational facilities is high in some parts of Oke- Ila, Dallimore and Okesa wards. Here, we have more primary and secondary schools, School of Nursing and Ekiti State University (Fig.V). It may be surprising that part of farm settlement ward in the north- eastern part of the urban settlement has a high density of educational facilities. This is explained by the presence of the Federal Polytechnics and Afe- Babalola University. In the ancient part of the urban centre, wards like Inisa, Idofin, Ijigbo, Idolofin, and part of Okesa wards were serviced with relatively medium educational facilities whereas, Ereguru and parts of Irona wards were poorly served (Fig.V). However, the need for more educational facilities is being complimented by the provision from private individuals. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 7 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA 4.5 Water Facilities There is high supply of water facilities in Inisa, Idofin, parts of Okeyinmi, Oke-Ila, Irona and Ijoka wards compared to the relatively medium supply of same in Okesa, Dallimore, Ereguru, Irona wards while Ijigbo and farm settlement wards have low supply of water facilities (Fig. VI ). Even, with the presence of Ireje dam in the Ado Ekiti, most households depend on borehole, dug out wells and rainfall as the major sources of getting water for all human uses. The four natural water springs in the townAmu, Olotoro, Orojuda amd Omi - Olori (besides Mary Immaculate Grammar School) were not developed and therefore not tapped for human consumption. They have been subjected to serious pollution from level of urbanization and constructive works that have changed the eco-system in the environments (Fig.VI). Rivers and streams channels have been constructed to discharge floods from the surrounding environment and most of the surrounding buildings located their swage system down hills that later discharged human wastes through underground seepages to the springs, thereby, rendering them unsafe for human consumption. Generally, there was high shortage of water supplies in the state capital. Pipe-borne water only serviced a limited portion of the town and water supply was epileptic hence, inhabitants search for water as early as possible especially in the dry season. The shortage of water has provided job opportunities for some private water provider. They use vehicles to hawk water in tanks for sales and this method has been of immense help to the construction and building industries. 5. Conclusion One of the major findings of the study is that there was a spatial variation in the intraurban poverty of Ado- Ekiti. The farm settlement ward was seen to be the poorest compared to other wards. Geographical Information Systems, as a test bed for poverty reduction policies and programmes would therefore make necessary intervention to be 'ward-specific'. The differences in local variation with reference to the degree of poverty should guide intervention before applying it as a global poverty reduction policies and programmes for the urban centre. The scope of social and infrastructural facilities needed to be expanded and made more accessible and affordable to the urban poor. Urban planners would no doubt find these results useful in planning and administering our urban space especially, the capital city of the State. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 8 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA Figure I: The Electoral Wards in Ado- Ekiti Source: Field Work, 2014. Figure II: Income, Housing and Housing Characteristics in Ado- Ekiti Source: Field Work, 2014. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 9 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA Figure III: Commerce and Communication Gadgets in Ado- Ekiti Source: Field Work, 2014. Figure IV: Roads and Drainages in Ado- Ekiti Source: Field work, 2014. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 10 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA Figure V: Educational Facilities in Ado- Ekiti Source: Field Work, 2014. Figure VI: Water Facilities in Ado- Ekiti Source: Field work, 2014. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 11 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA References 1. United Nations. (2007). Commission on Sustainable Development. Fifth Session Report, 7-25, New York: UN. 2. Carley, M., Jerkins, P. and Smith, H. (2001). Urban Development & Civil Society: The role of Communities in Sustainable Cities. Earthscan publications lit, London and Sterling, VA. 3. National Planning Commission, (2007). Poverty profiles of Nigeria. 4. Tipping, D.C., Adom, D. and Tiaijuka, A. C. (2005). UN-Habitat Achieving Health Urban Futures in the 21st Century: New Approach to Financing and Governance of Access to Clean Drinking water and Basic Sanitation as a Global Public Good. Un-HABITAT. 5. Paterson, C., Mara, D. and Curtis, T. (2007). Pro-poor Sanitation Technologies. Geo-forum. Spinger, 10:260-275. 6. Ndahlahwa, F.M. (2005). Impacts of Population Pressure and Poverty Alleviation Strategies on Common Property Resource Availability in Rural Tanzania. African Journal of Environment Assessment and Management. Ajeam-Ragee, 10: 26-49. 7. Ujoh, F., Kwabe, I.D. and Ifatimehin, O.O. (2010). Understanding Urban Sprawl in the Federal Capital City, Abuja: Towards Sustainable Urbanization in Nigeria. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning. 3(5).106-113. (Online). Available: http://www.academicjournals.org/JGRP (July 19, 2011) 8. Ajanlekoko, J. S. (2001). Sustainable Housing Development in Nigeria: The financial and infrastructural implication. International Conference on Spatial Information for Sustainable Development. Nairobi, Kenya. (Online). Available: www.fig.net/pub/proceedings/nairobi/ajanlekoko-CMWSI.pdf. (March 27, 2009). 9. Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (2007). Official Gazette on the breakdown of the National and State Provisional Totals 2006 Census. S.I. No. 23 of 2007, 94 (24), Lagos. 10. Jiboye, A. D. (2011a). Shelter for the Urban Homeless: The Challenge for Sustainable Cities' Development in Nigeria. The Built & Human Environment Review. 4 (2), 14-21. 11. Ayeni, G. O. and Adebayo, W. O. (2016). Application of Factor Analysis for the Evaluation and Determination of critical Factors Responsible for Urban Poverty in Ekiti State, Nigeria. International Journal of Education and Research. ISSN: 24115681. Vol. 4 No. 7 July, 2016. 12. Oladunjoye, A. O. (2005). Nigeria: Implementation of the Sustainable Cities Programme in Nigeria. Localizing Agenda 21 Programme. United Nations Programme for Human Settlements. (UN-HABITAT). European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 United Nations 12 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA Environment Programme (UNEP). Havana, Cuba. (Online). Available: www.unhabitat.org/scp http://www.unhabitat.org/1a21 (September 30, 2010). 13. Ajala, O.A. (2005). "Environmental Impact of Urbanization: The Challenges to urban governance in Nigeria". In, Fadare, W et al. (Eds.). Proceedings of the conference on Globalization Culture and the Nigerian Built Environment. Vol. II. Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile- Ife, Nigeria. 14. Ogunleye, B. (2005). Environmental Degradation Control for Sustainable Urban Growth in Nigeria. In, W. Fadare, et al. (Eds). Proceedings of the Conference on Globalization, Culture and the Nigerian Built Environment. Vol. II. Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria 15. Jiboye, A.D. (2011b). Achieving Sustainable Housing Development in Nigeria: A critical Challenge to Governance. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. 1 (9), 121-127. 16. Stephens, C and others. (1997). Urban Equity and Urban Health: Using Data to Understamd Inequalities in Health and Environment in Accra, Ghana, and Sao Paulo, Brazil. Environment and Urbanization 9 (1). Nottingham, U. K: Russell Press. 17. Ayeni, G.O. & Bankole, B. O. (2015). Poverty Mapping: Potential application in the analysis of poverty in Ekiti- State, Nigeria. International Journal of innovative Research and Advanced studies (IJIRAS). ISSN: 2394-4404, (Online) Vol. 2, Issue 6, 2015. 18. Adebayo, W.O. and Kolawole, G.T. (2010). Cultural Festival in Ekiti State: Prospects and Challenges on Tourism Development, a case study of Ado- Ekiti. Journal of Geography, Environment & Planning. ISSN: 1595-4373. Vol. 6, No. 1. March, 2010. 19. Watson, D.F. & Philip, G.M. (1985). A Refinement of Inverse Distance Weighted Interpolation. Geoprocessing, 2: 315-327. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 13 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA Appendix I COMMUNALITIES Initial Extraction V5a - Age 1 0.763629467 V5b - Gender 1 0.685102491 V6 - Marital Status 1 0.766737448 V7 - Level of Education 1 0.756215885 V8 - Religion 1 0.684533737 V9 - Occupation 1 0.776034286 V10 - Household Size 1 0.642613981 V11 - Average Monthly Income (in Naira) 1 0.78422159 V12 - Is the retail market in the area adequate 1 0.690102492 V13 - Estimated distance of the nearest retail shops to house 1 0.716718831 V14 - Distance to place of work 1 0.719599468 V15 - Mode of Travel 1 0.76321906 V16a - Type of Accommodation Building 1 0.894061434 V16b - No of People Living in the Building 1 0.727058568 V16c - No of Floor 1 0.880704779 V16d - No of Rooms 1 0.793608567 V17 - Nature of Occupancy 1 0.760105058 V18 - if rented, How much is paid as rent monthly(in Naira ) 1 0.658703529 V19 - Age of Building (in Years) 1 0.718352435 V20 - Materials used for wall construction 1 0.756807321 V21 - If storey building, materials used for decking 1 0.850500769 V22 - Roofing Materials 1 0.669832684 V23 - Wall Finishing 1 0.627539454 V24 - Condition of Wall 1 0.72293327 V25 - Structural Condition of Building 1 0.771054462 V26 - Is the Building Accessible by Road 1 0.67230294 V27 - Source of Drinking Water 1 0.83889667 V28 - Source of Cooking and Washing water 1 0.869402708 V29 - If Pipe-borne water, how regular is the supply? 1 0.836028419 V30 - Do you pay for pipe borne water? 1 0.754239124 V31 - if yes, how much do you pay per month? 1 0.668461229 V32 - Agency Responsible for Water Supply 1 0.700433355 V33 - Distance of Water Source to the HH 1 0.780173284 V34 - Water Resources Location 1 0.766781682 V35 - Location of Bathroom 1 0.862654874 V36 - Number of Households using a bathroom 1 0.924484013 V37 - Location of Toilets 1 0.872307997 V38 - Number of Households using a toilet 1 0.927727731 V39 - Type of Toilet 1 0.749684953 V40 - Location of Kitchen 1 0.90146237 European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 14 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA V41 - Number of Households using a Kitchen 1 0.930128632 V42 - Types of Energy used in Kitchen 1 0.59540823 V43 - Distance of Nearest Market 1 0.772502208 V44 - Range of Goods sold in the market 1 0.720121806 V45 - Description of Market Environment 1 0.786658499 V46 - Are there shopping malls and/or supermarkets around? 1 0.724994478 V47 - Type of Market wanted 1 0.704529422 V49 - What types of goods would you want them to sell 1 0.716589 V50a - Types of Waste generated 1 0.701423801 V50b - Method of waste storage 1 0.635378228 V51 - Methods of Waste Disposal 1 0.680965189 V52 - Frequency of Collection 1 0.739327274 V53 - Condition of Drainage System 1 0.671113034 V54 - Type or Class of Road in Locality 1 0.788554336 V55 - Condition of Road 1 0.717649158 V56 - Is the road provided with drainage? 1 0.822422126 V57 - If yes, kind of drainage available 1 0.727914807 V58 - Do you have difficulty in accessing your house? 1 0.8113596 V59 - If yes, what is responsible for inaccessibility? 1 0.814248506 V60 - Means of Access to your house 1 0.725437291 V61 - Source of Electricity Supply 1 0.640613689 V62 - If PHCN, what is the distance of the Nearest Transformer to the House? 1 0.798908758 V63 - Average Monthly Bill Paid by the Household 1 0.799381057 V64a - Category of Health Facilities 1 0.724545391 V64b - Ownership of Health Facility 1 0.745374314 V65 - Condition of Health Facility 1 0.636822639 V66 - Do you have a Police Post in the Neighbourhood? 1 0.822447674 V67 - If available, State type 1 0.790109023 V68 - Distance of Nearest Police Station to House 1 0.845472275 V69 - Distance of Nearest Fire Station to House 1 0.818285227 V70 - Do you have Postal Agency in your Neighbourhood? 1 0.667820593 V71 - Is there neighbourhood Vigilante in this Area? 1 0.811977898 V72 - How Effective are they? 1 0.827974178 V73 - Who Pays for Security Services? 1 0.844076102 V74 - Type of Communication Gadget owned 1 0.674406246 V75a - Educational Facilities Available 1 0.774549391 V75b - Ownership of Educational Facilities 1 0.654701247 V75c - Distance to HH 1 0.644238708 V76 - Rating of the Level of Service Delivery provided in Locality 1 0.704814872 V77 - Priority Projects in Community 1 0.703957741 V78 - Before Facilities were provided, were the people consulted ? 1 0.925775675 V79 - If yes, At what Stages were they involved? 1 0.927121413 V80a - Type of Religious Centers 1 0.771675214 V80b - Numbers of Religious Centers 1 0.71309901 European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 15 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA V81a - Type of Recreational/Cultural Facilities Available 1 0.881144519 V81b - Number of Recreational/Cultural Facilities 1 0.870790246 V82 - Are you a Member of any Voluntary Organization? 1 0.657494297 V83a - Area of Intervention 1 0.712217342 V83b - 1 0.713502642 V84 - How Accessible is Land to Womenfolk for Housing/Property Development 1 0.81459562 V85 - Commonest Gender Related Vices/Crimes 1 0.804524896 V86 - Cultural Heritage Facilities Available in Neighbourhood 1 0.668249626 V87 - Condition of Drainage System 1 0.724760688 V88 - Environmental Condition in Neighbourhood 1 0.620230878 V89 - As there been an incident of Outbreak of Communicable Diseases before? 1 0.864967759 V90 - If yes, What are the likely Cause? 1 0.820019501 V91 - Usual Health Problem caused by Environmental Conditions 1 0.662070957 V92 - What Attracted you to Area? 1 0.640374695 V93 - Would you Relocate from Area if Other Options are Available? 1 0.877091176 V94 - If No, why? 1 0.903025073 V95 - If yes, where else in the town? 1 0.844749575 V96 - Planning Agency Responsible for Development Control 1 0.652571956 V97 - Sources of Noise in Neighbourhood 1 0.758758619 V98 - Observed Effects of Noise on Individuals and Families 1 0.77393564 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 16 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA Appendix II Total Variance Explained Extraction Component Initial Sums of Eigenvalues Squared Loadings Total % of Cumulative Variance % Total % of Cumulative Variance % 1 15.23548041 14.6495004 14.6495004 15.23548041 14.6495004 14.6495004 2 9.337435396 8.978303265 23.62780366 9.337435396 8.978303265 23.62780366 3 5.953564515 5.724581265 29.35238493 5.953564515 5.724581265 29.35238493 4 5.18236709 4.983045279 34.33543021 5.18236709 4.983045279 34.33543021 5 4.247202074 4.083848148 38.41927836 4.247202074 4.083848148 38.41927836 6 3.484381415 3.350366745 41.7696451 3.484381415 3.350366745 41.7696451 7 3.310389974 3.183067283 44.95271238 3.310389974 3.183067283 44.95271238 8 2.910712274 2.798761802 47.75147418 2.910712274 2.798761802 47.75147418 9 2.549870181 2.451798251 50.20327244 2.549870181 2.451798251 50.20327244 10 2.478736902 2.383400867 52.5866733 2.478736902 2.383400867 52.5866733 11 2.412097282 2.319324309 54.90599761 2.412097282 2.319324309 54.90599761 12 2.297837449 2.209459086 57.1154567 2.297837449 2.209459086 57.1154567 13 2.067802476 1.988271612 59.10372831 2.067802476 1.988271612 59.10372831 14 1.939926322 1.865313771 60.96904208 1.939926322 1.865313771 60.96904208 15 1.855093505 1.783743755 62.75278584 1.855093505 1.783743755 62.75278584 16 1.72714951 1.660720683 64.41350652 1.72714951 1.660720683 64.41350652 17 1.619953195 1.557647303 65.97115382 1.619953195 1.557647303 65.97115382 18 1.584256549 1.523323605 67.49447743 1.584256549 1.523323605 67.49447743 19 1.532218034 1.473286572 68.967764 1.532218034 1.473286572 68.967764 20 1.391207637 1.337699651 70.30546365 1.391207637 1.337699651 70.30546365 21 1.270559606 1.221691929 71.52715558 1.270559606 1.221691929 71.52715558 22 1.204015646 1.157707352 72.68486293 1.204015646 1.157707352 72.68486293 23 1.170767997 1.125738459 73.81060139 1.170767997 1.125738459 73.81060139 24 1.151717116 1.107420304 74.91802169 1.151717116 1.107420304 74.91802169 25 1.110239518 1.067537998 75.98555969 1.110239518 1.067537998 75.98555969 26 0.992169147 0.954008795 76.93956849 27 0.978713459 0.941070633 77.88063912 28 0.957454542 0.920629367 78.80126849 29 0.939289366 0.903162852 79.70443134 30 0.904522724 0.869733389 80.57416473 31 0.878363261 0.844580059 81.41874479 32 0.839057556 0.806786111 82.2255309 33 0.817375257 0.785937747 83.01146864 European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 17 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA 34 0.789725628 0.759351565 83.77082021 35 0.761819063 0.73251833 84.50333854 36 0.727532313 0.699550301 85.20288884 37 0.692482624 0.665848677 85.86873752 38 0.666526409 0.640890778 86.5096283 39 0.629435201 0.605226155 87.11485445 40 0.579254363 0.556975349 87.6718298 41 0.574900558 0.552788998 88.2246188 42 0.568286256 0.546429092 88.77104789 43 0.532846192 0.512352108 89.2834 44 0.522462641 0.502367924 89.78576792 45 0.499446864 0.48023737 90.26600529 46 0.464729949 0.44685572 90.71286101 47 0.446924734 0.429735321 91.14259633 48 0.441157274 0.424189687 91.56678602 49 0.429482304 0.412963754 91.97974977 50 0.411812384 0.395973446 92.37572322 51 0.405473026 0.38987791 92.76560113 52 0.383261449 0.368520624 93.13412175 53 0.36517989 0.35113451 93.48525626 54 0.346961441 0.33361677 93.81887303 55 0.339023832 0.325984454 94.14485749 56 0.327240997 0.314654805 94.45951229 57 0.319574256 0.307282939 94.76679523 58 0.30723336 0.295416692 95.06221192 59 0.29569732 0.284324346 95.34653627 60 0.28521122 0.274241558 95.62077783 61 0.263567042 0.253429848 95.87420767 62 0.259326379 0.249352288 96.12355996 63 0.239194325 0.229994543 96.35355451 64 0.229943259 0.221099288 96.57465379 65 0.220475758 0.211995921 96.78664971 66 0.214754073 0.206494301 96.99314401 67 0.202307593 0.194526532 97.18767055 68 0.192684671 0.185273722 97.37294427 69 0.187037393 0.179843647 97.55278792 70 0.176748006 0.169950005 97.72273792 71 0.166532835 0.160127726 97.88286565 72 0.160697008 0.154516354 98.037382 73 0.155097952 0.149132646 98.18651465 74 0.144282094 0.138732782 98.32524743 75 0.132654508 0.127552411 98.45279984 76 0.131375655 0.126322745 98.57912259 77 0.127957353 0.123035916 98.7021585 European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 18 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA 78 0.118293704 0.113743946 98.81590245 79 0.107055582 0.10293806 98.91884051 80 0.10430173 0.100290125 99.01913063 81 0.099353782 0.095532482 99.11466312 82 0.095235268 0.091572373 99.20623549 83 0.091835039 0.088302922 99.29453841 84 0.080388885 0.077297005 99.37183541 85 0.075206497 0.07231394 99.44414935 86 0.071630315 0.068875303 99.51302466 87 0.061542827 0.059175796 99.57220045 88 0.056901097 0.054712593 99.62691305 89 0.053612091 0.051550088 99.67846313 90 0.047521966 0.045694198 99.72415733 91 0.042586931 0.040948972 99.7651063 92 0.039323046 0.037810621 99.80291693 93 0.039032132 0.037530896 99.84044782 94 0.035011159 0.033664576 99.8741124 95 0.025936379 0.024938826 99.89905122 96 0.023824978 0.022908633 99.92195986 97 0.019558888 0.018806623 99.94076648 98 0.017332712 0.016666069 99.95743255 99 0.01444024 0.013884846 99.97131739 100 0.012287176 0.011814593 99.98313199 101 0.008557175 0.008228053 99.99136004 102 0.005858356 0.005633035 99.99699308 103 0.002733126 0.002628006 99.99962108 104 0.000394075 0.000378919 100 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies - Volume 1 │ Issue 2 │ 2016 19 Ayeni, Gabriel Olusegun – SPATIAL PATTERN OF INTRA-URBAN POVERTY OF ADO- EKITI, SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA Creative Commons licensing terms Author(s) will retain the copyright of their published articles agreeing that a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0) terms will be applied to their work. Under the terms of this license, no permission is required from the author(s) or publisher for members of the community to copy, distribute, transmit or adapt the article content, providing a proper, prominent and unambiguous attribution to the authors in a manner that makes clear that the materials are being reused under permission of a Creative Commons License. Views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this research article are views, opinions and conclusions of the author(s). 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