European Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science
ISSN: 2501 - 1235
ISSN-L: 2501 - 1235
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
10.5281/zenodo.229751
Volume 2│Issue 6│2016
DOES HAND GRIP STRENGTH CHANGE WITH GENDER?
THE TRADITIONAL METHOD VS.
THE ALLOMETRIC NORMALISATION METHOD
İsa Sağiroğlu1i, Cem Kurt1, İmran Kurt Ömürlü2, Fatih Çatikkaş3
Kırkpınar School of Physical Education and Sport, Trakya University-Edirne, Turkey
1
2
Medical Faculty of Adnan Menderes University, Department of Biostatistics, Aydın, Turkey
School of Physical Education and Sport, Celal Bayar University, Manisa Turkey
3
Abstract:
The results of muscle strength and force tests were complicated by various factors, such
as age, gender and level of physical activity. The most well-known factor is body size.
The allometric normalising method has been recommended to obtain more precise
results from strength and force tests. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine
if gender plays a role in hand grip strength (HGS), and we used two methods: the
traditional method (TM; non-normalised strength) and the allometric normalisation
method (ANM; strength independent of body size). A total of 124 men (age: 21.0 ± 2.0
yr; BMI: 23.42 ± 2.47 kg/m2) and 77 women (age: 21.0 ± 2.0 yr; BMI: 21.07 ± 2.02 kg/m2)
participated in this study. The HGS was measured in kilograms using the dominant
hand via an adjustable hand grip dynamometer. When the traditional method was
used, HGS was expressed in Newtons (kg × 9.81). Otherwise, a formula (Sn= S / m0,67)
was used for the allometric normalisation scaling (Sn = normalized strength, S =
recorded strength, m = body mass and 0.67 = allometric coefficient). Both the TM
(women: HGS of 323.7 N vs. men: HGS of 461.1 N; p˂0,001) and the ANM (women:
HGS of 21.31 ± 2.54 N vs. men: HGS 26.39 ± 3.78 N; p˂0,001) confirmed that there are
differences in HGS as a function of gender. Replication studies are required to
determine which method is more appropriate for determining the gender differences in
HGS.
Corresponding author: İsa Sağiroğlu, Trakya University, Kırkpınar School of Physical Education and
Sports, Postal Code: 22030, Balkan Campus, Edirne, Turkey
Phone: +90 284 236 04 36, Fax: +90 284 236 04 35, E-mail: isagiroglu83@gmail.com
i
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved
Published by Open Access Publishing Group ©2015.
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İsa Sağiroğlu, Cem Kurt, İmran Kurt Ömürlü, Fatih Çatikkaş DOES HAND GRIP STRENGTH CHANGE WITH GENDER?
THE TRADITIONAL METHOD VS. THE ALLOMETRIC NORMALISATION METHOD
Keywords: geometric similarity, non-normalised strength, sexual dimorphism, strength
independent of body size
1. Introduction
Currently, physical fitness is considered one of the most important health markers and
is a determinant for future disability, morbidity and mortality (Ortega, et al., 2008).
Muscular strength is the one of the primary components of physical fitness (American
College of Sports Medicine, 1990). Ortega et al. (2012) reported that muscular strength is
associated with premature mortality due to cardiovascular disease; it is also accepted
that low muscular strength is an emerging risk factor for major causes of death in
young adults (Ortega, et al., 2012; Ruiz, et al., 2008). It is well known that a lack of
physical fitness is associated with many diseases, including cardiovascular disease, in
middle-aged and older people (Rodriguez, et al., 1994; Blair, et al., 1995; Ruiz, et al.,
2008; Leong, et al., 2015). However, less is known about physical fitness and the related
health outcomes in young adults (Ortega, et al., 2008).
Thus, resistance training and physical fitness level tests have been recommended
by health and fitness authorities to prevent premature death and to enhance a person’s
lifespan (Ruiz, et al., 2008; ACSM position Stand, 1990). There is no single test for
measuring muscle strength; however, the hand grip test has been one of the most used
to assess muscular fitness in epidemiological studies (Ortega, et al., 2008; Norman, et
al., 2011; Newman, et al., 1984).
A person’s gender, age, body mass and height influence the hand grip strength
in addition to one’s occupation and leisure activities (Puh, 2010; Norman, et al., 2011).
Recently, some researchers reported that men have a stronger hand grip strength than
women (Newman, et al., 1984; Pieterse, Manandhar, & Ismail, 2002; Kamarul, et al.,
2006; Dopsaj, et al., 2009; Puh, 2010). However, we recognized that the traditional
method was used in these studies to evaluate the hand grip strength to determine if it
there was a difference as a function of gender.
However, Jaric, Mirkov and Markovic (2005) suggested that various factors may
confound physical performance tests, such as gender, age, level of physical activity and
skill, and the most recognized factor is body size (Atkins, 2004). According to one
position, when strength is normalized for body mass, the difference as a function of
gender becomes smaller and disappears (American College of Sports Medicine, 1990)
because the geometric similarity suggests that all human bodies have the same shape
but differ in size (Jaric, Mirkov, & Markovic, 2005). To account for body size, a ratio or
isometric scaling method is typically used. This technique normalizes the strength per
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İsa Sağiroğlu, Cem Kurt, İmran Kurt Ömürlü, Fatih Çatikkaş DOES HAND GRIP STRENGTH CHANGE WITH GENDER?
THE TRADITIONAL METHOD VS. THE ALLOMETRIC NORMALISATION METHOD
body unit or fat-free mass (Atkins, 2004). However, the isometric scaling method fails to
account for differences in the lean, fat and total mass (Nevill, Ramsbottom, & Williams,
1992). Therefore, the allometric normalisation method can provide a more accurate
result. In the presence of conflicting results, this study aims to examine if there are
differences as a function of gender for hand grip strength (HGS) by using two different
methods, the traditional method (TM) and the allometric normalisation method (ANM).
2. Material and Methods
2.1 Subjects
A total of 124 men (age: 21,0 ± 2,0 yr; BMI: 23,42 ± 2,47 kg/m2) and 77 women (age: 21,0
± 2,0 yr; BMI: 21,07 ± 2,02 kg/m2) participated in this study from the physical education
and sport department. The height and mass of the students were recorded based on
their statements. The subjects were fully informed regarding the research protocols.
This study required no local ethics committee approval because it provided no risks or
burdens to the subjects.
2.2 International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ)
The physical activity levels of the subjects were evaluated using the short form version
of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire, which was translated into the
Turkish language by Sağlam et al. The physical activity levels of the subjects were
assessed using the method of Sağlam et al. Additionally, the questionnaires were
answered with the guidance of a lecturer.
2.3 Hand Grip Strength (HGS)
The HGS was evaluated for the dominant hand after 5 minutes of light jogging using an
adjustable digital hand grip dynamometer (Takei Scientific Instruments Co., Ltd.,
Japan). All subjects were tested three times with 20 second intervals, and the HGS was
measured in kilograms. The best of the three measurements was recorded. HGS tests
were applied while in the standing position with the shoulder adducted and neutrally
rotated and with the elbow fully extended (Saha, 2014).
2.4 Determination of HGS using the Traditional Method
The peak isometric force generated was quantified by multiplying the maximal
measurement detected by the dynamometer by 9.81 m·s-2 (gravitational constant) to
convert kilograms into Newtons (Kurt, 2014).
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THE TRADITIONAL METHOD VS. THE ALLOMETRIC NORMALISATION METHOD
2.5 Determination of HGS using the Allometric Normalisation Method (ANM)
The following formula (Jaric, Ugarkovic, & Kukoli, 2002; Jaric, et al., 2005) was used to
obtain the strength independent of the body size, which is known as allometric
normalisation:
Sn= S / m 0,67,
where Sn = normalised strength, S = recorded strength, m = body mass, and 0,67 = the
allometric coefficient.
2.6 Statistical Analyses
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to assess the normality of the numeric
variables. For the numeric variables that were normally distributed, the two groups
were compared using an independent sample t-test, and descriptive statistics are
presented as the mean ± the standard deviation. For the numeric variables that were not
normally distributed, the two groups were compared using the Mann–Whitney U test,
and the descriptive statistics are presented as medians (25-75 percentiles). The p values
below 0.05 were considered statistically significant.
3. Results
The descriptive statistics of the subjects are shown in Table 1. We found meaningful
statistical differences in the height (<0.001), body mass (<0.001), BMI (<0.001) and IPAQ
score (0.001) that favour the man except in regards to age. Additionally, there are
meaningful statistical differences for hand grip strength (expressed in kilograms and
Newtons) and for the allometric normalisation (Table 2).
Table 1: Descriptive statistics for women and men
Age (yr)
Height (cm)
Body mass (kg)
Women
men
(n=77)
(n=124)
21±2
21±2
0,235
1,67±0,06
1,80±0,07
<0.001
59,05±7,47
76,03±10,13
<0.001
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İsa Sağiroğlu, Cem Kurt, İmran Kurt Ömürlü, Fatih Çatikkaş DOES HAND GRIP STRENGTH CHANGE WITH GENDER?
THE TRADITIONAL METHOD VS. THE ALLOMETRIC NORMALISATION METHOD
BMI (kg/m2)
IPAQ
21,07±2,02
23,42±2,47
2384
3985,5
(1434-4765,9)
(2515,1-5493)
<0.001
0.001
IPAQ: International Physical Activity Questionnaire
Table 2: Hand grip strength in kilograms and Newtons and allometric strength
Hand grip strength in kg
Women
Men
(n=77)
(n=124)
33
47
(29,9-36,4)
(43,5-54,6)
323,7
Hand grip strength in Newton
Allometric Strength
(293,3-356,6)
461,1
(426,2-535,6)
21,31±2,54
26,39±3,78
P
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
4. Discussion
It is generally accepted that hand grip strength measurements can be used as a health
marker (nutritional status, cardiovascular health and functional limitations, such as
impaired walking and balance, etc.) and for overall fitness assessment (Norman, et al.,
2010; Ortega, et al., 2008; Newman, et al., 1984). Additionally, measuring the hand
strength using a hand dynamometer is fast, easy to perform, reliable and produces
results that are simple to record (Puh, 2010)
Budziareck, Duarte and Barbosa-Silva (2008) argued that age and gender are the
strongest influencing factors for hand grip strength in healthy people. In many studies,
it has been suggested that there are differences in the HGS between sedentary women
and men that favour men (Kamarul, Admad, & Loh, 2006; Chilima, & Ismail, 2000; Isen,
McGue, & Iacono, 2014; Puh, 2010; Haward, & Griffin, 2002). This situation is similar for
women and men athletes (Laskowski, 2010; Dopsaj, et al., 2009; Noorul, Pieter, & Erie,
2008; Dopsaj, et al., 2007).
According to Dopsaj et al. (2007), differences in HGS as a function of gender may
be explained by factors, such as the cross-sectional area, muscle fibre characteristics,
amount of skeletal muscle mass, distribution of muscle mass in the upper limbs and
common anatomical differences.
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İsa Sağiroğlu, Cem Kurt, İmran Kurt Ömürlü, Fatih Çatikkaş DOES HAND GRIP STRENGTH CHANGE WITH GENDER?
THE TRADITIONAL METHOD VS. THE ALLOMETRIC NORMALISATION METHOD
Isen, McGue and Iacono (2014) reported that the mean HGS of young men is at
least twice that of young women. This result may be explained by a) masculinizing
agents (e.g., testosterone) that contribute to higher mean HGS values, b) greater
participation of boys in sports and other extra-curricular activities involving upperbody strength and c) upper body mass, which is approximately 75% greater in men
than in women.
According to Puh (2010), HGS can be affected by leisure activities, occupation
and physical activity levels. In this study, the physical activity level, as measured by the
IPAQ score, of men was higher compared with women. In the present study, the IPAQ
was a factor that determined that there are HGS differences related to gender.
Jaric, Ugarkovic and Kukoli (2002) argued that body size independent indices for
muscle strength can serve as a valid assessment of muscle function. Additionally, Jaric,
Mirkov and Markovic (2005) suggested that the performance in a number of functional
tests, which were based on muscle actions that were intended to support the body
weight during strength demanding conditions (push ups, squats, posture, etc.), may be
negatively related to body size (Jaric, Ugarkovic, and Kukoli, 2002; Jaric, 2003).
Our results presented above of the hand gip strength were not normalized; thus,
if the strength were evaluated using allometric scaling, different results could be
obtained. Additionally, this recommendation was suggested by Noorul, Pieter and Erie
(2008).
However, not enough studies exist in the literature that use the allometric
normalisation method to explain whether the differences in HGS are due to gender
differences, except for one study by Dopsaj et al. (2007). They reported there are HGS
differences as a function of gender when HGS was evaluated via the allometric
normalisation method as in this study.
In conclusion, this study confirmed that there are differences in the HGS as a
function of gender when evaluated by both the TM and ANM.
Acknowledgement
This manuscript includes the extended results of original work that was presented as
poster presentation in the 14th International Sports Congress which was held in
Antalya / TÜRKİYE between the dates of November 01-04, 2016.
Authors certify that they have no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise, regarding
the content of the manuscript.
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THE TRADITIONAL METHOD VS. THE ALLOMETRIC NORMALISATION METHOD
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