DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICES IN ECE IN BOTSWANA: A MYTH OR REALITY?

Globally, Early Childhood Education (ECE) has been governed by National Association of the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). This organisation concerned about the welfare and education of young children (0-8years) produced guidelines for practitioners and all involved in the teaching of young children on how best to teach and educate young children. These guidelines state that children need to be taught content that is developmentally appropriate. This means that content should be designed to suit the age, individual nature of the child as well as the culture of the child. While Botswana has taken bold steps in providing ECE to children who would not have been able to enrol in ECE one wonders whether the provision afforded meets the requirement of providing these children with Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP) as mandated by NAEYC. The absence of such practices may impact on the learning of young children. This paper argues for the importance of the DAP practices in the current ECE provision. It is suggested that the DAP can provide children with quality education that they deserve; it can also allow children to learn at their own pace. The absence of such a practice can impact the quality of ECE consequently impacting on the proper development of children holistically. Data collection and analysis used mixed methods being qualitative and quantitative. Questionnaires and interviews were uses as data collection instruments. A total of 15 questionnaires were distributed to ECE teachers in the Greater Gaborone Zone of which 11 were returned. A total of 11 interviews were conducted. The participants were mostly women with a few men.


Background
Botswana has over the past 40 years been amongst the list of countries with the fastest growing economies in the world, characterised by an impressive record of prudent macroeconomic policies and good governance. This track record of achievement has moved Botswana from the list of least developed and poorest countries in the world, to an upper-middle income country. The country's current economic and social performance continues to be shaped by this remarkable record of appropriate macroeconomic policies and good governance. The economy grew faster than expected and reached a real rate of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth of about 5.9 per cent in 2013. However, projections expect GDP growth to decline and are expected to decrease to 4.8% by 2017. ii (p.14).

Basic education
Basic education consists of a total of 12 years: 7 years of primary school, 3 years of junior secondary school and 2 years of senior secondary school (in addition to tertiary education). While the official school starting age is 6 years of age, it is only by the age of 7 that almost all children are in school. Parents are charged a 'co-payment' for education, but the children of those in lower income groups receive free education. Free school meals are provided to all school pupils. Pre-primary education is mostly limited to private schools with a limited enrolment. Progression is automatic from primary to junior secondary though now up to 12.5% of the members of each class can repeat the year. The first ten years of education ('basic education') are available to all children. Students sit for three nationwide examinations: the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) at the end of primary schooling; and those who pass the Junior Certificate of Education (JCE) at the end of junior secondary school can progress to the senior secondary school level and sit for the Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education (BGCSE). and learner performance. There remains a significant group of children for whom this is more challenging, in particular children from poorer and more remote rural areas, and children with special needs, including educational needs (p.35). In Basic Education there has been an increase of 7.0 per cent in primary school drop-outs recorded between 2011 and 2012 from 3,026 to 3,239. Again, this level is more pronounced in remote, rural primary schools, amongst learners from poorer social backgrounds (UNICEF, 2013) (p.35).
Educational quality in core primary subjects, such as, English, Mathematics, Science and Agriculture has been falling, and significant disparities in learner performance persist. UNESCO's review of Botswana's Basic Education system (2013) notes "the results show that students comparatively perform below par compared to international students of the same age group." They also perform below the international benchmarks. Botswana participated in the PIRLS 2011 test on reading literacy and only 10 per cent reached high levels and 56 per cent of pupils failed to reach the low benchmark and ranked 46 out of 49 participating countries beating only Oman and Morocco. iv

Education and Training Sector Strategy Plan (ETSSP 2015-2020)
The Botswana Education and Training Sector Strategic Plan (ETSSP 2015-2020) seeks to refocus our education and training towards fulfilment of social and economic aspirations identified in our Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE), the National Development Plan, Vision 2016 and as well as the Millennium Development Goals. (p.6). Botswana Government & Skills Development (p.8). More specifically, ETSSP sets out priority programmes and interventions that will strengthen students' acquisition of relevant knowledge and skills. The ETSSP will make a key contribution to the achievement of overall education sector goals at different levels as follows: Botswana Government & Skills Development at the individual level: by helping learners maximise their potential through a commitment to excellent teaching that demonstrates up-to-date pedagogy and by providing all learners with the required skills and knowledge needed to succeed in Botswana society. One of the priorities of the ETSSP is 'Strengthening Skills Development' to "provide children with an excellent start in education so that they have better foundations for future learning."

Early Childhood Education in Botswana (Basic Education)
In Botswana, early ownership of Early Childhood Education (ECE) was by private institutions and individuals. It is only recently in 2012 that government made ECE an integral part of the education systems of Botswana. The Botswana Education and Training Sector Strategic Plan (ETSSP) of 2015 have identified "lack of access to Early Childhood Development programs despite its importance on learner progression and pupil performance at schools as the early years prepare children for school readiness" (Republic of iv PIRLS 2011 Learners' Achievement (8 July 2014). Note: PIRLS 2011, reading literacy was defined as the ability to understand and use written language forms. Botswana, (2015:23). The ETSSP also underscores the fact that pre-primary education is largely provided by the private sector. To increase access to ECE, the National Development Plan 10 set a target of 40% increase in enrolment using a scale of 18.4% of children who entered primary standard 1 in 2011 who had attended early childhood education at government run schools (Statistics Botswana, 2012cited in ETSSP, 2015 and contrasting it with 48.1% of children entering standard 1 in private schools (2011) who participated in early childhood program.
The first step by the government of Botswana to increase access to early childhood education or pre-primary education was to introduce orientation programmes for "prospective Standard One pupils in 2012 and reception classes in public schools in 2013". An orientation program was for a period of six weeks and was introduced in all public primary schools. The program is to partly prepare children for learning, with the provision of readiness activities and also to help children settle into schools. A One-Year Reception Programme has been introduced in 115 schools out of a total of 756 public schools in January 2014. Currently Government has made a great commitment in regard to the provision of ECE (Republic of Botswana (2015:23) with the introduction of reception classes.
Early Childhood Education is basically defined as a branch of education which relates to the teaching of young children (formally and informally) up until the age of about eight. It is sometimes called Nursery Education (Henniger, 2017). Basically, there are numerous benefits associated with quality ECE. Among these benefits are (i) easy progression when they start primary or elementary schools, for example, children who underwent quality early childhood education are said to have increased productivity over a life time, thus improving standards of living, saving costs on remedial education and care, higher earnings for parents especially women who would be free to join the labour market (Henniger, 2017). Investment in ECE also reduces social disparities as well as race and gender inequalities. ECE also has the potential to end the cycle of poverty (Meier & Marais, 2012). When children are enrolled in ECE programs, they are likely to learn valuable skills that could instil peace, compassion as well as issues of democracy, unity, self-reliance as well as botho which in in the case of Botswana denotes s wellmannered, courteous and disciplined person who disapproves of anti-social, disgraceful, inhuman and criminal behaviour, and encourages social justice for all (Republic of Botswana, Presidential Task, 1997).
Indeed, the benefits of attending early childhood education have been mentioned by a number of researchers, Aubrey, David, Godfrey & Thompson (2000), for example, contend that children who receive high quality ECE have fewer problems progressing in school than those who received low quality care. They are said to score higher on tests gauging cognitive and academic achievement. Furthermore, children who attended early childhood schools are less likely to engage in problem behaviours (fighting, arguing, being mean to others) than those who received low quality care (Barnett & Belfield, 2010.). These are some of the many benefits that make early childhood education a priority in many countries; Botswana included though having recently supported this sector of education. At the same time the early years are critical for the development of potential human beings, the first eight (8) years are characterised by rapid, physical, intellectual, social and moral development (Meier & Marais, 2012). At this period, it is therefore important for young children to be provided with a quality early childhood education that can develop them in all the areas (outlined above).
A few researches have been done in regards to ECE but none of them has focused on Accreditation standards as a quality indicator of Early Childhood Education in Botswana. The following are the studies conducted. Parents views regarding professional development of ECE teachers (Monyatsi, Bose & Mberengwa, 2012). Maundeni (2013) reported that pre-schools in Botswana were faced with problems of lack of proper structures, overcrowded classrooms, lack of facilities, not following standards set by Early childhood Education and Care Policy 2001, such as using teachers without relevant qualifications or with inadequate preparation to teach at this level. As stated by Meier & Marais, (2012) point out that there is a positive correlation between teachers' qualifications and the quality of and early childhood education program (p.79) Monyatsi, Bose & Mberengwa (2012) further state that teacher -pupil ratio in some schools tend to be higher than what is suggested in early childhood education policies.
In Botswana, the Early Childhood Education Policy states that a centre shall have a maximum of twenty five (25) children aged 2 and a half to 4 years per class and a maximum of thirty (30) children aged four (4)-six (6) per class, yet some schools are said to have high ratios of fifty (50) -sixty (60). In some of the schools, children are overcrowded and lack space to move around to interact with others. Maundeni (2013) also states that there is lack of materials, equipment that children can use to play with. As recommended by worldwide organisations that advocate for quality Early Childhood Education such as National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), children need to be provided with age-appropriate materials so that they can learn from them using all their senses. This kind of learning is seen as a contemporary approach to learning. As stated by Johnston & Nahmad-Williams, (2009) children's play is a natural avenue for learning, social experiences and emotional enrichment. As a result, children cannot play without appropriate materials for both indoor as well as outdoor.
Hygiene has also been identified as being compromised within ECE programs in Botswana (Maundeni, 2013). Most programs in Botswana did not meet The Early Childhood Education Policy on health and safety standards. These Programs did not provide essentials such as warm water, liquid soap, hand-drying facilities, and a sanitary towel. Meals were also not good enough for ECE programs in Botswana. Food is very crucial and important in the holistic development of young children because without food children cannot fully function, let alone learn much.
There are various policies that are used in the provision of ECE in Botswana. These policies have been aligned with global interest such as the Jomtein Conference 'Education for All' held in Thailand. The most prominent are the following: The Revised National Policy on Education, 1994, Vision 16, National Day Care Centre Policy 1980. Early Childhood Care and Education Policy (2001). These policies have assisted stakeholders in Botswana in the provision of ECE services but seem not to be adequate in assuring quality ECE standards.
Early Childhood Education refers to branches of education and care of young children from birth to 8 years (Meier & Marais, (2012). Other names used are pre-school, kindergarten, nursery, and crèches. Early childhood Education (ECE) is an integral part of modern education systems in many countries with the Botswana government having acceded to this need. In Botswana ownership has been within the context of private institutions and individuals. Now the Government of Botswana has made a great commitment in this regard.
As it may be expected, the increasing interest in and importance of ECE comes with public investments directed especially at improving the development of all young children and particularly the socially disadvantaged groups (Sirag, 2015; Icenberg & Jalongo (2003)  Children who receive high quality education and care are better in Mathematics skills prior to primary school entry (Laevers, 2000). Children who received high quality child care had fewer problems than those who received low quality care. On the contrast research found out that children who received lower quality child care during the first three years were rated "more difficult" by their teachers. Those who received high quality childcare scored higher on tests gauging cognitive and academic achievement. Similarly, children who received quality childcare are less likely to engage in problem behaviours (fighting, arguing, being mean to others) than those who received low quality care (Laevers, 2000).
It is on the basis of these presumed benefits that governments, development partners, private organizations, non-government organization, churches as well as individuals spend resources on ECE. Virtues derived from ECE are the building blocks of productive citizens. The vision for the Government of Botswana's early childhood "focuses on the problems and needs of early childhood care and education programmes and seeks to create an environment in which services of a high quality would develop" (Early Childhood Education Policy, 2001).

Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP)
The concept of Developmentally Appropriate Practice has been in existence for over four decades and has been welcomed and accepted world -wide as a breakthrough in pedagogical advancement regarding the teaching and learning of young children. Currently, there is a 'call' for young children to be taught in a developmentally appropriate manner. This is a universal call that highlights the importance of ECE environments that cater for the individual needs, age and cultural needs of a child.
The DAP framework is grounded both in the research on child development and learning and in knowledge about educational effectiveness that promotes young children's optimal learning and development (Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs (2014). A position statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children, the founder of DAP is to promote excellence in early childhood education by providing a framework for best practice. This framework entails the following dimensions: • What is known about child development and learning-referring to knowledge of age-related characteristics that permits general predictions about what experiences are likely to best promote children's learning and development (Kostelnik, Soderman, & Whiren, 2004) Practitioners need to make sure that the activities they provide children will develop them in them holistically in the following domains physical, emotional, intellectual, fine motor, gross motor, language, social/emotional development, self-help/adaptive behaviour, morals and values. (Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs (2014). When teachers provide children with the above-named domains the practitioners also need to consider the age of the children, content has to be brought to their level of understanding. Content should not be too difficult or too easy.
• What is known about each child as an individual-referring to what practitioners learn about each child that has implications for how best to adapt and be responsive to that individual variation (Kostelnik, et al. (2004). Though children can be of the same age group they would still differ in the capabilities, interests, likes and dislikes. It is therefore important that any activity given to a child is in line with the child as an individual but not as a group. The domains of development outlined above should not only consider the age of the child but also the individual nature of the child as well.
• What is known about the social and cultural contexts in which children livereferring to the values, expectations, and behavioural and linguistic conventions that shape children's lives at home and in their communities that practitioners must strive to understand in order to ensure that learning experiences in the program or school are meaningful, relevant, and respectful for each child and family (Kostelnik, et al., 2004). The social and cultural contents that the child is in has a strong impact on their development, hence it is of paramount importance that the activities the child is given meet the criteria outlined above, that it has to be age related, consider the child as an individual and also consider the social and cultural context of the child. The above dimensions form the core of any DAP, thus ECE programs should be adhering to the above in order to provide the quality education that young children need to have as outlined in ETSSP is 'Strengthening Skills Development' is to "provide children with an excellent start in education so that they have better foundations for future learning" (9). Also eluded in ETSSP, is to provide learners with an excellent start in education by excellent teaching representing up to date pedagogy. It is vital that teachers in the early years demonstrate the knowledge of such pedagogy so that learners benefit from such. It was therefore important to find out ECE teachers perceptions of DAP, and current classroom pedagogy so as to find if they are in-line with the Education and Training Sector Strategy Plan (ETSSP 2015-2020) calling best pedagogical practices to enhance.
At the same time, other than the above dimensions, children in a DAP classroom also learn in many phases. According to (Kostelnik, et al, 2004) children learn through the following five (5) phases: awareness, exploration, acquisition, practice and generalisation. Awareness-they need to be aware that something is happening so as to spark their curiosity. After the awareness, children need to show interest in exploring what they saw. After thoroughly exploring children may ask questions to learn new information, "How do… Where do…?" The next phase would be for the child to practice, self-motivating, self-initiated activities. How children gain mastery is that the child plays several times over several days, to master the activity. The last phase would be to generalise, this is where the child applies new knowledge about things that go together to similar situations (Kostelnik, et al, 2004). These therefore become the phases of learning that we need to make sure our children venture into when engaging in DAP.

Aim of the Study
In the meagre literature that exists on ECE in Botswana, none has focused developmentally appropriate practices as a pedagogical strategy to be used in the ECE curriculum. The aims for the study was to collect the views of ECE teachers about their perception of DAP. The study was also interested in finding teachers knowledge of DAP practical use of DAP in their day to day teaching.

Data Collection and Analysis
The study used qualitative semi-structured questionnaire which was arranged in three broad themes of (i) demographic (sex, age, standard/class level & school, teachers' school background and occupation, (ii) Perception of Developmentally Appropriate Practices. Quantitative and qualitative data was collected using sociological methods of interviews and questionnaires. The study solicited views of teachers, about their perceptions regarding DAP. Data was collected through questionnaires as well as the interview. The research covered a single locality Gaborone. A total of three (3) primary school pupils were used in the study, comprising of two (2) males and nine (9) females. There were eleven (11) questionnaires as well as eleven (5) interviews conducted to triangulate the data. Qualitative data was collected through single interviews which were audiotaped and transcribed into MS Word 15, while quantitative data was collected through questionnaires and analysed through SPSS.

Findings
The findings of the study in regards teachers' demography was that 81% were female while 18% were male. The participants understanding of the concept of DAD was remarkably good. Ninety (90%) of the teachers had some understanding of the concept. When one participant was asked what she understands by DAP she said, "I think these are the activities and instructions that are designed to match the stage of development for each child because each child develops at his/her own rate". While another said, "this is a practice in early childhood education using different principles from theories such as Piaget, Maria Montessori, Vygotsky, Bandura and Maslow." The findings indicate that most of the participants knew the concept.
When participants were asked to explain how they have used DAP in their teaching seventy two (72%) gave examples that were DAP appropriate. One participant said, ''I provide age-appropriate and culturally appropriate materials (e.g. infant, toddler and pre-school. Have materials and equipment at children's height e.g. chairs, bookshelves and activity shelve, frequently change materials and equipment, to reflect on children's interest and needs''. Twenty eight per cent (28%) gave answers that were not making sense. The findings indicate participant knowledge of DAP activities.
The participants understanding of the concept of Individual Appropriateness, was tested. Seventy two per cent (72%) of the participants understood the concept, but another twenty eight per cent (28%) did not. One participant said understanding of individual appropriateness was that, ''Individual Appropriateness is a research based framework that outlines practices in the early childhood environment that provides optimal education for young children's learning and development or ''best practices" DAP requires teachers to be aware of children's development see them as individuals". Twenty eight per cent (28%) were not knowledgeable about individual appropriateness. Findings indicate that the participants know what individual appropriateness means in DAP.
Seventy two per cent (72%) of the participants were knowledgeable when asked what they understood as culturally appropriate practices are. One participant said, ''it is learning based on their culture as individuals, as we do not want to change them but develop them culturally.'' Another participant said ''it involves children's cultural background and family or other factors that shape their lives at home.'' Twenty eight per cent (28%) of the participants were not familiar with the concept. Here the findings show that teachers know what culturally appropriate practices are in relation to DAP.
When the participants were asked which aspects of DAP they liked thirty six per cent (36%) gave relevant answers, one said ''I like the emotional and social development in storytelling. The children will immediately refer to the home experience when listening to the story. This has also given me a lot of insight into the lives of the children I work with". One said that she liked "the fact that DAP involves culturally appropriate practice-culture is a barrier to equity and includes education, so this will help iron out those barriers''. Another said, 'individually appropriate practice is being able to identify different needs of pupils and ways to help them individually. Sixty four per cent (64%) of the participants did not answer the question. Due to the fact that this was an application type of question, it was difficult for teachers to answer it if they have not practiced DAP before. The findings show that most of the teachers were not able to answer the question because of limited knowledge on the practical side of the DAP.
One question which the participants were asked about was what aspects of DAP they did not like; eighteen per cent (18%) of the participants were able to answer the question while eighty two per cent (82%) of the participants were not able to answer the question. One participant said she disliked DAP because 'it focuses on western practice that does not cover my culture in Africa''. This was also a challenging application type of question that demanded sound knowledge of DAP. The findings show that participants were not able to answer the question. This was most probably due to the lack of knowledge on the practical issues of DAP by the teachers.
In conclusion, the findings indicate teachers knew what DAP is, they also knew activities that are DAP compatible. They also knew what individual appropriateness is and cultural appropriateness means in their teaching. The majority of teachers failed to answer questions that were related to applying knowledge about DAP. When asked which aspects of DAP they liked/disliked, most of them failed to answer the questions. The findings indicate that teachers lacked the practical day to day usage of DAP; they were not able to apply the factual knowledge and link it to the practical day to day usage of the concepts. Consequently, there is need for further teaching and training of teachers in ECE about the use DAP in their daily practical usage.

Recommendations
The current ECE school curriculum is too out-dated, thus leaving out essential dimensions of Developmental Appropriate Practices; the three dimensions necessary for the holistic all rounded education of young children; individual appropriateness, age appropriateness activities as well as the cultural appropriateness of the curriculum. The following recommendations are necessary to enhance the concept of Developmental Appropriate Practice in Botswana ECE Programmes: Need for further education and training on DAP especially how to embrace DAP in the daily schedules of young children. This training can be in both in-service and preservice training emphasising on the need to include hands on activities that cater for needs of an individual child, age appropriate as well as culturally appropriate.
Training teachers to allow creativity of children to blossom naturally in a DAP classroom. ECE classroom should be a place of creativity and exploration. ECE classrooms should not be a place of rigid routines, rigid curriculum and rigid timelines. ECE, DAP classroom needs to cherish and nurture the exploratory nature of children's learning and make classrooms areas that would nurture the creativity, exploratory, individually and culturally and age appropriate needs of children in the early years (Gordon & Browne, 2017). Each child should be given a platform to excel in their own area of interest and talent (Gordon & Browne, (2017).
ECE children need to be empowered with skills to enable them to function with little help from parents or teachers (Gordon & Browne, 2017). This will make them selfsufficient, hence needing little support from teachers preparing them for later life outside ECE programme (Henniger, 2017). Children taught in less restricting environments develop a variety of skills such as decision-making and problem-solving, creative thinking and critical thinking, communication and interpersonal skills, self-awareness and empathy, coping with emotions and coping with stress (Henniger, 2017). By so doing we will be in line with the provision of ECE, that is DAP for providing the quality education necessary for the early years. a strong ECE. A strong DAP foundation of learning can provide a solid foundation for development.
Classrooms should be well equipped with materials and equipment that allows for children to be learning in a fun and interesting manner. When classrooms are fully equipped children learn without much effort from teachers. A variety of skills can develop in classroom that is well equipped e.g. skills of observation, classifying, asking questions, comparing and contrasting, classifying, predicting measuring, reading, listening, speaking, drawing conclusions, experimenting, gathering information and communicating. Not forgetting social / emotional skills of empathy, compassion, caring etc.
The 21st century is driven by technology in all areas of life. ECE inclusive, young children are already advanced in the use of technology. There is need for ECE classrooms to have areas where young children can handle technology and learn from it. An ECE programme should expose children to technology so that they learn from it, in a fun and enjoyable way. It would also be a refreshing platform for children to break away from books. ECE programs should equip classrooms with age-appropriate technology to enhance children's development in line with the current state of affairs-technological way of living.

Conclusions
DAP is a good pedagogical strategy that is internationally recognised, and which seems to be providing children with quality education. It is therefore important for developing countries such as Botswana to fully train teachers to understand DAP and also to practice it for the benefit of young children in our ECE programmes. It is through the use of a pedagogical strategy such as DAP that our children in ECE programmes can receive quality education that they deserve as our future leaders and future workforce.