European Journal of Education Studies ISSN: 2501 - 1111 ISSN-L: 2501 - 1111 Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu 10.5281/zenodo.60920 Volume 2│Issue 3│2016 THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE Shkelqim Millaku1, Xhevahire Topanica2 Prof. Asoc. Dr., Faculty of Philology, University of Prizren, Prizren, Kosova 1 Mr.sc., Faculty of Philology, University of Prizren, Prizren, Kosova 2 Abstract: The compound words are all the words that are compound from two or more words and both of them creative the new words with the new meaning. In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme (less precisely, a word) that consists of more than one stem. Compounding or composition is the word-formation that creates compound lexemes (the other word-formation process being derivation). Compounding or Wordcompounding refers to the faculty and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words. In other words, compound, compounding or word-compounding occurs when a person attaches two or more words together to make them one word. The meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that a new meaning comes out which is very different from the meanings of the words in isolation. Keywords: compound words: classroom, blackboard, armchair, homework, newspaper, nobleman, breakdown, looking-glass, father-in-law; zemërluan, zemërgur, ujmirë, juglindje, bashkëpunim, marrëdhënie zemërgur, belhollë, buzëqesh, keqkuptoj, fjalëshumë hekurudhë (heku+udhë), kryeqytet, shtëpi-muze 1. Introduction The compound words are all the words that are compound from two or more words and both of them creative the new words with the new meaning. The compound words in “lbanian are creative late in our grammar. They ve beginning at the XIX century and are study in two ways: The first way is studied by the forage studies for example: Hahni, Dozoni, Weigandi etc. All of them said their negative opinions for Albanian compound, because they said do not exist the compound noun. In fact the compound nouns are studied by Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved Published by Open Access Publishing Group ©2015. 94 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE the Albanian authors for example K. Kristoforidhi, A. Kostallari, K.Cipo, S. Frashëri, N. Frashëri. They have augmented the compound by the basic of language, from the dialects and from their origin e.g. zemërluan, zemërgur, ujmirë, juglindje, bashkëpunim, marrëdhënie zemërgur, belhollë, buzëqesh, keqkuptoj, fjalëshumë hekurudhë (heku+udhë), kryeqytet, shtëpi-muze etc. This phenomenon is the same in English language, but in fact has the different structure for example: Compound nouns consist of at least to free morphemes: classroom, blackboard, armchair, homework, newspaper, nobleman, breakdown, looking-glass, father-in-law etc. Many syntactic groups have become compound nouns by conversion: forget-menot, pic-me-up, merry-go-round etc. In most cases such nouns are hyphenated to denote their unity. Compounding combined with derivation is quite common: taxpayer (tax-payer), gamekeeper (game-keep-er), window-cleaner (window-clean-er), narrowmindedness (narrow-mind-ed-ness).i In the dictionary English – Albanian we have this thinks for cmpound ang. compo kompu em., ndërtim si struko, lloçë pjesë përbërëse ang. composite (kompozitë) mb. bot. (bime) yjore, e përbërë ark. (bazament kapital)ë det. (anije) me strukturë të përzier, me strukturë druri e metali. II. em. Trupi i përbërë, Përzierje. ang. compound (kompound) i mb., i përbërë, kompleks. compound number mat numër i përbërë (kompleks). compound orderark. Rend i përbërë (kompozitë) ...gjuhë. Fjalë e përbërë e pathjeshtë .ii This phenomenon is studied from some different studies and they have shown their opinions e.g. Fjala e përbërë ose kompozita përftohet kur dy fjalë shkrihen. Te këto fjala e dytë është kryesore, kurse e para e përcakton këtë me afër rreth termit kompozitë në gjuhë të tjera paraqitet si përbëra, rus. c٨o oe c٨oв к iii . Ndërkaq Kompozitë-a, -at ose fjalë të зи, fr.compos, mot composé, ang. Compound, gjerm. Kompositu,m zusammengesetztes Wortë ital. Komposto, parola composta .iv N. Jokli, në vend të termit kompozitë apo fjalë e përbërë ka përdorur fjalën bashkë-ngjituna.v Fjalë e përbërë ose kompozitë e mirëfilltë në gjuhën shqipen janë fjalë dygjymtyrëshe që formohet nga bashkimi i dy ose më shumë temave, në një njësi të vetme leksikoi Jashar Kabashi, English Grammar Morphology, Prishtine, 2000, p.165. ii Pavli Qesku, Fjalor Anglisht-Shqip, English-Albanian Dictionary, Tiranë, 2002, p. 372. iii Veljko Gortan, Oton Gorski, Pavao Paush, Gramatika latine, Prishtinë, 1985, p. 166 iv Fjalor i Termave të Gjuhësisë, Tiranë, 1975ë botuar nga Akademia e Shkencës e RPSH-Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i letërsisë, sektori i terminologjisë, p113. v Norbert Jokl, Naim be Frashëri e pasunimi i gjuhës shqipe, Gjurmime albanologjike, seria shkencore filologjike II, 1972, Prishtinë, 1974, p. 28. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 95 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE semantike strukturalist të mbyllur, e cila formësohet si një njësi e pavarur fonetikomorfologjike, ka kategoritë e veta potenciale fjalëformuese, zhvillohen semantikisht dhe kryen funksionet e veta sintetike gjithnjë si një tërësi-fjalë, pavarësisht nga veçoritë fonetike dhe leksiko-gramatikore të komponentëve të saj .vi The English language has the same form and sometimes same structure and meaning with compound of “lbanian e.g. English merchants in the Orient during the 18th century often built enclosed trading stations to protect themselves and their goods form thieves. They called these stockade enclosures compounds, from the Malay kampong, enclosure . The compound is no relation to the chemist s compound, which derives from the Latin composer, put together .vii With inters of studies for compound nouns we one think by Mariana Celce - Murcia that in his book said book ka shkruar The grammar Compounding, or putting together existing words to form a new lexical unit (rain + cout = raincout), is a word-formation process that occurs in some languages. For example, the Germanic language (this includes English) and the Chinese language make rich use of compounding, whereas other languages make much less use of this process. According to the Collins Cobuild English Grammar, almost any noun can modify any other noun in English. Take the noun house, for instance. We have housebroken housemate, house sitter, houseboat, house arrest, housebreaking, houseguest, housefly, housekeeper, houselights, housewife, housework, and this list in not exhaustive, by any means…  Some of the frequent English compounding patters are:  Noun + verb: homemade, rainfall, lip-read,  Adj. + noun: blackbird, greenhouse, cold cream,  Noun + noun: stone wall, baby blanket, rainbow,  Noun + verb-er: baby-sitter, can opener, screwdriver,  Adj./adv. + noun + -en: quick-frozen, nearsighted, dim-witted, Prep. + noun: overlord, underdog, underworld… viii The students who speak a native language with a little word compounding or with very different rules of word compounding many have trouble understanding and using compound words in English. Such learners may paraphrase and say the sheet of the bed instead of the bedsheet or may even reverse the order of elements in a compound and say wine table when they intend to say tablewine . As can be seen, the spelling of compound words proves a further complication because some are vi A. Kostallari, Mbi disa veçori të fjalës së përbërë në gjuhë shqipeë Studime mbi leksikun dhe mbi formimin e fjalëve në gjuhën shqipe I, Tiranë 1972, p.83. vii Robert Henderickson, Word and phrase origins, New York, 1997, p. 164. viii Mariana Celce-Murcia, The Grammar book, USA, 1999, p. 35 European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 96 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE written as one word, some are two words, and some are hyphenated. Sometimes the same words are written in more than one way: baby sitter, baby-sitter or babysister. Traditionally, word formation has been conveniently divided into compounding and derivation. The former is based on combinations of independent lexemes, whose derivation involves the combination of word into complex morphological structure ix . The concept of compound is marginal between the word and the phrase. A structure composed of two or more words graphically conjoined is undisputedly of compound status some example in Albanian: or in English which has some forms, for example: stone wall, baby blanket, rainbow, homemade, rainfall, lip-read, (Noun + verb -er): baby-sitter, can opener, screwdriver, (Adj. + noun): blackbird, greenhouse, cold cream, (Adj. adv. + noun + -en): quick-frozen, nearsighted, dim-witted, overlord, underdog, underworld etc. Both of languages have their forms and creative the new words. After the affixes, a prefix, suffixes is the compound that can more creative the new words. In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme (less precisely, a word) that consists of more than one stem. Compounding or composition is the word-formation that creates compound lexemes (the other word-formation process being derivation). Compounding or Word-compounding refers to the faculty and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words. In other words, compound, compounding or word-compounding occurs when a person attaches two or more words together to make them one word. The meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that a new meaning comes out which is very different from the meanings of the words in isolation. The structure of compound nouns in English has the same form and of courses some different structures than in Albanian. A common semantic classification of compounds yields four types: Endocentric, darkroom, smalltalk, Exocentric (also bahuvrihi), skinhead, and paleface (head: 'person'). Copulative (also dvandva), bittersweet, sleepwalk, appositional, actor-director, maidservant. In English an endocentric compound consists of a head, i.e. the categorical part that contains the basic meaning of the whole compound, and modifiers, which restrict this meaning. For example, the English compound doghouse, where house is the head and dog is the modifier, is understood as a house intended for a dog. Endocentric compounds tend to be of the same part of speech (word class) as their head, as in the case of doghouse. (Such compounds were called tatpuruṣa in the Sanskrit tradition.). ix Christopher Pountain, M.F.Lang, Spanish Word Formation, London, 1990, p. 11. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 97 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE Exocentric compounds (called a bahuvrihi compound in the Sanskrit tradition) do not have a head, and their meaning often cannot be transparently guessed from its constituent parts. For example, the English compound white-collar is neither a kind of collar nor a white thing. In an exocentric compound, the word class is determined lexically, disregarding the class of the constituents. For example, a must-have is not a verb but a noun. The meaning of this type of compound can be glossed as "(one) whose B is A", where B is the second element of the compound and A the first. A compound is one whose nature is expressed by neither of the words: thus a white-collar person is neither white nor a collar (the collar's colours is a metaphor for socioeconomic status). Other English examples include barefoot and Blackbeard. The Albanian language has two basic forms: a. bashkërenditëse (këpujore) b. nënrenditëse (përcaktore) Those two groups can have more another groups example: noun + noun, noun + adjective, noun + verb, noun + participle e.g. bashkëpunim (bashkë + punim kryeqytet (krye + qytet)ë plotëkuptim (plotë + kuptim)ë kryevepër, bashkëpunim, pikëpamje, ekonomiko-bujqësore, ballëlartë, mirëmbajtje, bashkëveproj, zemërbardhë, gojëmjaltë, bregdet, juglindje, mirëpret, superprodhim, keqdashje, lartpërmendur, gjashtëmujor, vetëdije, dyluftim, bregdet, gjashtëmujor, ditëpune, bashkëveprime, atdhedashuri, (atdhe + dashuri), zëvendësministër (zëvendës + ministër). zëvendëskryeredaktor (zëvendës + kryeredaktor) etc. 1.2. The terminology and definition The definitions of compound nouns are show by different studies with differnt forms for example in “lbanian language are some thinks Kompozitë,-a f. (it. composito) gjuh. fjalë e përbërë, e formuar nga bashkimi i dy a më shumë temave ose fjalëve në një njësi të vetme fonetike, leksikore e gramatikore .x “. Xhuvanit has publice his opinion Mbi këtë çështje ka shkruar se pari N. Jokli në broshurën Naim Frashëri të botuar në Gratz më 1925. Se dyti pas tij, ka shkruar i ndjeri K. Cipo te Buletini i Institutit të Shkencave të vitit II nr. 2-3 .xi When two (or more) elements which could potentially be used as stems are combined to form another stem, the form is said to be a compound. A compound lexeme (or simply a compound) can thus be defined as a lexeme containing two or more potential stems. Since each potential stem contains at least one root, a compound must x Grup autorësh, Fjalor i fjalëve të huaja, Prishtinë, 1988, f.315. Aleksander Xhuvani, “Ko pozitat’’, Studime mbi leksikun dhe mbi formimin e fjalëve në gjuhën shqipe I, Tiranë 1972, f.69. xi European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 98 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE contain at least two roots (wastepaper basket)... Compound nouns can be further subdivided into four groups according to semantics criterion. Consider first the example armchair, highbrow, maidservant … the second type of compound is termed an endocentric … . The thirdly, maidservant is a hyponym of both maid and servant a maidservant is type of maid and also a type of servant. This type of compound is termed an appositional compound. The final division of compound nouns is exemplified by Alsace-Lorraine and Rank-Hovis … , this type of compound is normally given the Sanskrit name of dvandva, although the English term copulative compound is also used to describe themxii. Kompozitë,-a. sh,-a, -at gjuhë. Fjalë e përbërë, e formuar nga bashkimi i dy a më shumë temave ose fjalëve në një njësi të vetme fonetike, leksikore e gramatikore (p.sh. asnjëherë, ballafaqe, bashkatdhetar, domosdo, kurdoherë, zemërgur etj.). Kompozitat përcaktuese (këpujore, pronësore, dëshirore .xiii Kompozitë-a, -at. Fjalë të përbëra, janë të formuar nga bashkimi i dy e më shumë temave në procesin e krijimit të fjalëve të reja. Pjesët e tyre mund të jenë tema emërore, mbiemërore, foljore ose ndajfoljore si: zemërgur, belhollë, buzëqesh, keqkuptoj, fjalëshumë .xiv Kompozimi është një mënyrë fjalëformimi, me anë të cilës krijohen fjalë të reja, që kanë në përbërjen e tyre dy e më shumë tema motivuese, njëra nga këto (tema mbështetëse, që është zakonisht e dyta) e formëson gramatikisht gjithë kompozitën, ndërsa tema tjetër është e asnjanësuar nga pikëpamja e kuptimeve të saj gramatikore, p.sh. bregdet, botëkuptim, marrëdhënie, juglindje, veriperëndim, vendbanim, syzi, mësimor-edukativ... xv Kompozitë-a, f. sh. -a, -at gjuh. Fjalë e përbërë, e formuar nga bashkimi i dy e më shumë temave ose fjalëve në një njësi të vetme fonetike, leksikore e gramatikore (p.sh. akullthyes, ballafaqe, bashkatdhetar, asnjëherë, domosdo, kurdoherë, ndonjëherë etj. .xvi Those opinions are public by Albanian studies and it is same with English e.g. Compound noun are sometimes written as two words (e.g. Credit card), other times as one word (e.g. sunglasses). Occasionally they are joined by a hyphen (e.g. baby-sister). Often, one part of the compound forms the basis for many different compound nouns. Post-ticket-box- office, Brother- sister- father- mother in law, Movie- pop- rock star, xii Laurie Bauer, English Word-Formation, London, 1983, p. 30 – 31. xiii Fjalor i Gjuhës se Sotme Shqipe, Tiranë, 1980, f. 856. xiv Jani Thomaj, Leksikologjia e gjuhës shqipe, Tiranë,1974, f.90. xv Gramatika e Gjuhës shqipe I, Tiranë, 2002, f.70. xvi Fjalori i shqipes së sotme, Tiranë, 2002, f. 596. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 99 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE Traffic light, Dining- living- jam room, Coffee break, cup- pot shop, Toothpaste, Hair brush. “s far as the spelling of compound words are concerned, one should bear a very important fact in mind. If the examples listed above are considered carefully, it becomes obvious that they can be divided into three groups. In the first group we have compounds which are written as a single word (rattlesnake, bloodstain etc.), the second group consist of hyphenated compounds (ice-cream, etc), whereas in the third group are those compounds which are written separately (chewing gum, swimming pool etc. . xvii The process of joining two or more bases into a singular word is called compounding or composition for example: policeman, overcome, hand-made, myself, twenty-one, high school, son-in-law etc.   Orthographic criteria for compounds may be written as: One word: housework, bedroom, football, boyfriend. Hyphenated: hair-dryer, pace-maker, son-in-law etc for example: Ha, ha! What a fool. Honesty is! And Turst, his sworn brother, a very simple gentleman! I have sold all my trumpery: not a counterfeit stone, not a ribbon, glass, pomander,  1.3. brooch, table-book …shoe-tie, horn-ring… . xviii Two words: bus driver, washing machine, high school etc. Types of compound nouns in English Word compounding is a very productive way of forming new words in English. Almost any combination of the parts of speech may be employed in compounding, with the exception of articles. Once again we will make no attempt to be exhaustive. The nominal compounds are usually consisting of two elements, the second of which is usually a noun for example: newspaper, boyfriend, bathroom etc. Compound nouns consist of two or more words used to refer a people or things more specifically in terms of what they are for (1) what they are made of (2), what work they do (3), what kind they are (4) or where and when they happen or are used 5 , hyphens are something used in compound nouns example xix : So, I can illustrate with some example: xvii Shukrane Germizaj, A comprehensive handbook of English Grammar, Prishtine, 2004, p. 41. xviii William Shakespeare, The Wi ter’s Tale, Denmark, 1995, p.8o. xix George Yule, Oxford practice grammar, Oxford, 2008, p. 76. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 100 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE   Bus driver, history teacher, production manager.  Detective story, horror move, women priests.  Birthday party, winter coat, dining room table.  Application form, can opener, swimming pool, emergency exit door.  Chicken soup, glass bottle, paper plates. a house-husband, a get-together, a do-it-yourself store. There are many compound nouns formed with a verb + preposition, or preposition + verb. Here is an update on the news. At the outbreak of war I was just three years old. The town has a bypass, which keeps traffic out of the center.xx This (these) think (s) can be accepted for both of languages. We have same structure of compound between Albanian and English but we have and some difference structure example: bus driver, history teacher, and mother-in-law. This model in Albanian does not exist or called noun phrases as like: bus driver, history teacher, mother-in-law etc. In English we have some tips of compound nouns e.g. Compounding, or putting together existing words to form a new lexical unit (rain + coat = raincoat), is a word formation process that occurs in some language. For example, the Germanic languages make rich use of compounding.  Some of the most frequent English compounding patterns are: Noun + noun: stone wall, baby blanket, rainbow, football, bathroom, bloodtest, boyfriend, newspaper, win-glass, night-dress, evening dress, bus driver,  hair-dryer, pecan-maker, song writer.  Noun + verb-er: baby-sister, can opener, screwdriver,  Noun + verb: homemade, rainfall, lip-read, Adjective + noun or noun + adjective: blackbird, greenhouse, cold cream, blackboard, blackberry, fast-food, hot-house, common law, public-house, public school, shorthand, highway, nobleman, free-trade, handyman, gruemirë   goodwife, kryezi blackhead etc. Adjective / adv. + noun + en: quick-frozen, nearsighted, dim-witted, Prep. + noun: overlord, underdog, underworldxxi. In the most adverb + noun compounds the noun implies some action for which the adverb may serve as a circumstantial modifiel: bashkëatdhetar bashkëbisedues bashkëudhëtar co-speaker, bashkëveprim co-fighter, bashkëpunëtor fellow traveler, bashkëveprim orthography, drejtshqiptim conversation, co-worker, co-action, drejtshkrim correct pronunciation . Noun compounds consist of xxii xx Liz and John Soars, Ne Head ay Ad a ed, Stude t’s ook, Oxford, 2003, p.60. xxi Marianne Celce-Muricia, The Grammar book, USA, Heinlein, 1999, p.55. xxii Leonard Newmark, Philip Hubbard, Peter Prifti, Standard Albanian, California, 1982, p. 176 European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 101 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE two or more nouns placed together to represent specific items or substances. They represent the ultimate reduction of an adjective clause, as shown in the examples below …a gear, a worn-shaped gear, a warm gear, a system a water purification systemxxiii. Compounding forms a word out of two or more root morphemes The words are called compounds or compound words. In Linguistics, compounds can be either native or borrowed. Native English roots are typically free morphemes, so that means compounds are made out of independent words that can occur by themselves. Examples: mailman (composed of free root mail and free root man) mail carrier fireplace, fireplug, fire hydrant etc. Note that compounds are written in various ways in English: with a space between the elements, with a hyphen between the elements or simply with the two roots run together with no separation. The way the word is written does not affect its status as a compound. In Greek and Latin, on the other hand, roots do not typically stand alone. So compounds are composed of bound roots. Compounds formed in English from borrowed Latin and Greek morphemes preserve this characteristic. Examples include photograph, iatrogenic, and many thousands of other classical words. There are a number of subtypes of compounds, and they are not mutually exclusive. These words are compounded from two rhyming words. Examples: lovey-dovey chiller-killer etc. There are words that are formally very similar to rhyming compounds, but are not quite compounds in English because the second element is not really a word--it is just a nonsense item added to a root word to form a rhyme. Examples: higgledypiggledy, tootsie-woodsy. This formation process is associated in English with child talk (and talk addressed to children). Examples: bunnie - wunnie, Henny Penny, snuggly - wuggly etc. Another word type that looks a bit like rhyming compounds comprises words that are formed of two elements that almost match, but differ in their vowels. Again, the second element is typically a nonsense form: pitter - patter, zigzag, tick - tock, riffraff, and flipflop.  A lot of tips we have and in Albanian for example: noun + noun = noun (emër + emër = emër) breg + det = bregdetë krye + minister = kryeministër, kryeburrë, bregdet em., bregdetas em., breg-detet em., kryelartësi, kryeministri, bukëpjekës, rrobaqepës, or noun+noun of root verb xxiii Peter Master, English grammar and technical writing, Washington, 2004, p. 145. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 102 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE (emër + emër foljor) has done e.g. derë + dalje = derëdaljeë rrugë + dalje =  rrugëdalje etc.  dorëzënë, gojë + lidhur = gojëlidhur.  gjatë = kryegjatë, krye + lartë = kryelartë etc.  besëlidhje, mikpritje etc. Noun + participle (Emër + pjesore) e.g. sy + dalur = sydalur, dorë + zënë = Noun + adjective (Emër + mbiemër) e.g. krye + madh-I = kryemadh-i, krye + Noun + noun of verbs (Emër + emër prejfoljor) botëkuptim, letërkëmbim, Noun + noun (Emër + emër) pikëpamje, bregdet, luledielli,xxiv qymyrguri, babagjysh,udhëkryq, zëvendës (zë+vend-ës), marrëveshje (marrë+vesh-je), kryengritës, kurse në gjuhën angleze kemi house-keep-er, window-cleaner-er,  narrow-mindedness (narrow-mind-ed-ness) etc. Adverb + noun (ndajfolje + emër) e.g. bashkëveprim, bashkëjetesë, bashkëpunëtor, bashkatdhetar, mirëkuptim, mirëbesim, keqbërës, keqkuptim,  drejtshikim.  vetë-edukim, vetëbesim, vetëmohim, vetëmbrojtje, dymujor, gjashtëmujor. The compound with pronoun, number + noun (përemër, numëror + emër) e.g. Noun + adjective (emër + mbiemër) e.g. gojëlidhur, gruemire, lulëkuqe, gushëkuqe, gojë-ëmbël gojëhapur, kryezi, kryelartë, krye + peshk = kryepeshk, krye + tul = kryetul mb., krye + tulle = kryetullë mb., krye + zi = kryezi mb., lule lule = mb. Bisht + i gjatë = bishtgjatë, bisht + i madh = bishtmadhë kuq = bishtkuqë kokë + e madhe = kokëmadhe, kokë + vogël = kokëvogël, krye + i lartë = kryelarti etc. These forms are same and in English language: Some report a sea-mind spawned him...some, that he was begot between two stock-finish... But it is certain, that when he makes water, his urine is congealed ice-that I know to be true... example xxv So it is same and in Cases of higher leave similarly of representation and simply the extreme cases which, if this framework is accepted, prove the existence of higher levels .xxvi We have shown some tips of Albanian and English and in the following we will comported some another tips e.g. The most common type of word formation is the combination of two (or more) nouns in order to form a resulting noun: Noun + Noun = Noun. Examples: landmine, wallpaper, toothbrush. The first of the two compounds may be descriptive (i.e. tablecloth, a cloth with which to clean [or cloth tables), or both xxiv Isa Bajçinca, Kompozimi dhe terminologjia shkencore, Gjendja e terminologjisë shqipe në Jugosllavi, Prishtinë, 1988, f. 25. xxv William Shakespeare, Measure for Measure, London, 1995, p. 52. xxvi Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structure, New York, 2002, p.87. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 103 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE compounds may create a whole new meaning altogether (i.e railroad, which is not a "road" in the typical sense of the word.) It is also possible to form words whose components are equally important to or descriptive of its meaning, for example, a washer-dryer refers to an object combining two functions. There are, of course, many more different ways how compound nouns can be related to each other and how their new meanings can best be explained grammatically. In most cases, however, the nature of these compounds is self-explanatory, and their meanings are quite comprehensible even for those who encounter them for the first time. Note that compound nouns usually appear as two separate words, only those more commonly used, those found in every-day language, and usually compounds with no more than three syllables are found as one word. Hyphens (-) between the segments of a compound noun are absolutely exceptional. Examples: windowsill (the sill attached under a window), shopwindow (a shop's window), doorkey (a key for the door), bookpage (a page in a book), silverspoon (a spoon made of silver), waterpipe (a pipe that carries water), dockyard (a yard for docks), fireman (somebody who fights fire), wallpaper ("paper" one glues to walls), Independence Day (anniversary of the Declaration of Independence), office supply (goods for office use), water shortage (shortage of water), labour riot (employees rioting), television set (a set for watching television), headache (an aching head), snowfall (snow falling), answerphone (a phone that answers), airconditioner (a machine conditioning air), gunfight (a fight carried out with guns). The compounds noun-noun is popular from different studies e.g. …There s not a solider of us all, that, in the thanksgiving before meat, do relish the petition well that prays for peace xxvii offence by weight- . … Thus can demi-god, Authority, Make us pay down for our xxviii .Moonlight, armchair, postman, railway, shoemaker, windmill, teaspoon haystack, ringleader, jailbird, horse-power, screwdriver, tax-payer, airman, manservant fire-escape, chess-board. The same think we have and another studies: surely we are agreed that the more sober and restrained pleasure of the present or deeper as well as wiser than the noisy, foolish hustle which passed so often for enjoyment in the days of old-days so recent and yet…Those empty lives which were waster in animals visiting and being visiting, in the health in the worry of great and unnecessary households, in the arranging … xxix Noun + Adjective Nouns and adjectives can also be compounded in the opposite order: xxvii William Shakespeare, Measure for Measure, London, 1995, p.6. xxviii William Shakespeare, Measure for Measure, London, 1995, p. 9. xxix Arthur Conan Doyle, The lost world and other thrilling tales, London, 2001, p.290. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 104 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE Noun + Adjective = Adjective Camera + shy = camera-shy (Shy in respect of appearing or speaking before cameras). In this case, the resultant is an adjective, while the noun explains the objective. Another possibility is that the noun supports the adjective, i.e. as an intensifier: Dirt - cheap = cheap as dirt, paper - thin = thin as paper Those rules do also apply to the linking of nouns and participial adjectives: English - speaking, soul - destroying, frost - bitten More common and shorter compounds appear as one word whereas those longer and less common are linked by a hyphen. More examples of all subtypes: waterproof (proof or resistant against water), seaworthy (a ship withstanding the dangers of the sea), airworthy (an aircraft safely flyable), blameworthy (a person deserving blame), bookworthy (something worth being published), trustworthy (somebody who can be trusted), jet black (deep black), footsore (having a sore foot), heart-sick (a person suffering from heart disease), seasick (being sick from the effects of a stormy sea), home-made (made privately at home), power-mad (mad about or craving power), colour-blind (unable to discriminate colours other than black and white and grey). Noun + “djectives or Participle for example: Show your knave s visage, with a pox to you …show your sheep-biting face, and be 350 hanged an hour…Will t not off?xxx Blood-red, Sky-blue, Snow-white, Pitch-dark, Breast-high, Skin-deep, Lifelong, World-wide, Headstrong, Homesick, Stone-blind, Seasick, Love-lorn, Hand-made, Bed-ridden, Heart-broken, Moth-eaten, Note-worthy. 1.4 The formation of nouns from Adjectives: Examples: Dolt from dull, Heat from hot, Pride from proud etc. The formation of adjectives from nouns: Examples: Milch from milk, Wise from wit. Adjective + Noun Another major type of word formation is the compounding of Adjectives and nouns: Adjective + Noun = Noun Example: brown + bear = brownbear In this case, the adjective defines or describes the character of the noun (a brownbear is a bear that is brown). It is also possible, however, to link the two segments and end up with a totally new word, for example, yellow press refers to newspapers specializing in sensational news items. If the meaning of the compound does not immediately register through analysis of the segments, the latter is the case. Then, only a look in the dictionary will help. xxx William Shakespeare, Measure for Measure, London, 1995, p. 89. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 105 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE Adjective + Noun: Examples surely we are agreed that the more sober and restrained pleasure of the present are deeper as well as wiser than the noisy, foolish hustle which passed so often for enjoyment in the days of old-days so recent and yet… xxxi Sweetheart, Nobleman, Shorthand, Blackboard, Quicksilver, Stronghold, Halfpenny. These compounds usually appear as one word. Examples: blackboard (a board to write on vertically attached to a wall), redneck (a Southerner of poor social background), yellow press (see above), blueprint (prints of building plans, or details plans in general), lazybones (a lazy person), browbeat (see above), braveheart (somebody who's brave), wiseguy (a pretentious person who behaves as if he knows more than others), hardcopy (something in print), software (computer programmers), coldblood (a person devoid of feelings of pity). This construction exists in English, generally with the verb and noun both in uninflected form: examples are spoilsport, killjoy, breakfast, cutthroat, pickpocket, dreadnought, and know-nothing. Also common in English is another type of verbnoun (or noun-verb) compound, in which an argument of the verb is incorporated into the verb, which is then usually turned into a gerund, such as breastfeeding, fingerpointing, etc. The noun is often an instrumental complement. From these gerunds new verbs can be made: (a mother) breastfeeds (a child) and from them new compounds mother-child breastfeeding, etc. Here verbs describe what is done with an object or what a subject "does", in short, a new noun is formed, usually referring to something concrete, and the verb defines the action related to it: Verb + Noun = Noun: draw + bridge = drawbridge. A drawbridge is a bridge that can be inclined in order to allow ships to pass, or "drawn". Here, the noun is the direct object. hitman = a man who carries out "dirty jobs", or, who "hits". Here, the word as part of speech is the subject. Besides that, both segments can be related in other ways, i.e. the noun may stand for a adverb of place: walkway = people walk on the walkway. The usual rules apply to spelling. More examples: walkway (a way to walk on), divecenter (a place where one goes diving), runway (a strip of flat land where aircraft start or land ["run"), filter-paper (paper used for filtering liquids or gases), driveway (a road leading to a garage or a building), payday (the day one receives his or her salary), paycheck (a check used for the payment of wages or salaries). xxxi Arthur Conan Doyle, The lost world and other thrilling tales, London, 2001, p.290. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 106 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE Noun + Verb e.g. Waylay, sunrise, hand shake, garbage, dump, earthquake, lifegourd, handslide, toothache, sunset, waterfall, bus-stop, birth control. • ”ackbite, Typewrite, and ”rowbeat, Earmark. 1.5 The formation of nouns from verbs Examples: In both of languages are productive this tip of compound e.g. E habitshme ishte këmbëngulja për të mos e treguar dredhinë… Wlliam Shakespeare e.g. Which his or another example from xxxii hell-governed arm hath… xxxiii • Gold from gild, Grass from graze, Half from halve, Knot from knit, Sale from sell, Sooth from soothe, Tale from tell, Thief from thieve. • Wreath from wreathe mation of verbs from nouns: Examples: • Bathe from bath, Bleed from blood, Believe from belief, Breathe from breath, Breed from brood, Clothe from cloth, Drip from drop, Feed from food. The most important class of words formed by internal changes consists of the past tenses of the Primary Words. Those past tense-words are not treated as Derivatives. Formation of Nouns from Verbs: Examples In most uneven and distracted manner. His actions show much like to madness-pray haven his wisdom be not tainted…xxxiv • Choice from choose, Bliss from bless, Chip from chop • ”reach from break, Dole from deal, Dike from dig, Fleet from float, Doom from deem, Bier from bear, Watch from wake, Seat from sit, Gap from gape, Girth from gird, Grief from grieve, Woof from weave. Verb + Noun: Examples They pushed on through the yellow foothills (v + n = n) for the rest of the day and camped that night in a well-concealed little canyon where the light from their fire would not betray their location to the brigands who infested the region .xxxv • Spendthrift, push-button, pickpocket, popcorn, playground, rattlesnake, watchdog, knitwear, Makeshift, hovercraft, playground, grindstone, Breakfast, Telltale, Pickpacket Cut-throat, Daredevil, Hangman, Scarecrow. -ing participle / noun Dining room, fishing boat, cooking stove, flash-point and flashing point, wash-stand and washing stand, handwriting, writing paper, chewing gum etc. xxxii Ismail Kadare, Përbindëshi, Tiranë, 2005, p.40. xxxiii William Shakespeare, Richard III, Denmark, 1993, p.13. xxxiv William Shakespeare, Measure for Measure, London, 1995 p. 74. xxxv David Eddings, Magi ia ’s Ga it, London, 1983, p.115. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 107 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE Noun / -ing participle Air-conditional, piano-playing, baby-sitting, brainwashing, dress-making, housekeeping, letter-writing, town-planning etc. Pass. Noun/noun Child s play, bird s nest, lady s maid, doctor s degree, summer s day, man s voice etc. The formation of words has few rules which determine the nature of the words formed thus. Gerund + Noun: Examples: • Drawing-room, Writing-desk, Looking-glass, Walking-stick, Blotting-paper, Stepping-stone • Spelling-book. Adverb (or Preposition) + Noun: Examples: • Outlaw, Afternoon, Forethought, Foresight, Overcoat, Downfall, Afternoon, Bypass, Inmate, Inside. A compound noun is made up of two nouns, or an adjective and a noun for example: Come sir, come sir, come sir, foh sir, why you bald-patted lying rascal…you must be hooded, must you ?xxxvi Alarm clock, Traffic light, Parking meter, Credit card, Dining room, Movie star, Brother-in-law, Math teacher, Mother tongue (your first language) Verb / adverb / prep Fallout, hold-up, makeup, leftover, teach-in, get-away, grow-up, breakdown etc. Noun/ per. Phrase Son-in-law, edition in-chief, man-of-war, forget-me-not, happy-go-lucky etc. Noun compounds are like compressed formal definitions. They can usually be interpreter by reversing the order of the words in the noun compound and inserting prepositions and articles. A water purification system = a system for the purification of water 1.6 The plural compounds The plural compound nouns have three different ways: (a) Plural in the last elements for example: Housewife housewives, Milkman milkmen, Nobleman noblemen, xxxvi William Shakespeare, Measure for Measure, London, 1995, p. 88. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 108 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE Boyfriend boyfriends, Schoolmaster schoolmasters, Grow-up grow-ups, Merry-go-round merry-go-rounds (b) Plural in the first elements: Father-in-law fathers-in-law, Man-of-war men-of-war, Looker-on lookers-one etc.. (c) Plural in both elements Woman driver women drivers, Woman student women students, Woman doctor women doctors, Man friend men friends Man student men friends etc. The Albanian compounds have some same structure with English compounds e.g. atdhetaret, bregdetas, kryeqytetas, mirëdashësit, mirëkuptime, keqkuptime. Compounds form the plural in different ways, but below is the most usual. a. Plural in the first element Mother-in-low mothers-in-low, Man-of-war men-of-war Coat of mail coats of mail, Spoonful spoonfuls b. Plural in both first and last element Gentleman farmer gentleman farmer, Woman doctor c. Plural in the last element, Assistant director women doctors Assistant directors.xxxvii In this paper, as a consummation we have seen the contrast of the compounds nouns between Albanian and English. In Albanian language the compound words usually are created by two or more mining words. It is similarly and in English but in this language the phrase has function of the compound e.g. Alarm clock, Traffic light, Parking meter, Credit card, Dining room, Movie star. In Albanian language it is impossible as a compound than in English. The next contrast is e.g. son-in-law, edition-in-chief, man-of-war than in Albanian usually are simple words or as in English cannot create compound with preposition or conjunctive. It s contrast. xxxvii Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, University Grammar of English, London, 1973, p. 84 – 85. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 109 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE References 1) Bajçinca, Isa. Kompozimi dhe terminologjia shkencore, Gjendja e terminologjisë shqipe në Jugosllavi, Prishtinë, 1988. 2) Bauer, Laurie. English Word-Formation, London, 1983. 3) Celce-Murcia, Mariana. The Grammar book, USA, 1999. 4) Celce-Muricia, Marianne. The Grammar book, USA, Heinlein, 1999. 5) Chomsky, Noam. Syntactic Structure, New York, 2002. 6) Christopher Pountain, M.F.Lang, Spanish Word Formation, London, 1990. 7) Doyle, Arthur Conan. The lost world and other thrilling tales, London, 2001. 8) Eddings, David. Magician’s Gambit, London, 1983. 9) Fjalor i Gjuhës se Sotme Shqipe, Tiranë, 1980. 10) Fjalor i Termave të Gjuhësisë, Tiranë, 1975ë botuar nga Akademia e Shkencës e RPSH-Instituti i Gjuhësisë dhe i letërsisë, sektori i terminologjisë. 11) Fjalori i shqipes së sotme, Tiranë, 2002. 12) Germizaj, Shukrane. A comprehensive handbook of English Grammar, Prishtine, 2004. 13) Gramatika e Gjuhës shqipe I, Tiranë, 2002. 14) Grup autorësh, Fjalor i fjalëve të huaja, Prishtinë, 1988, f.315. 15) Henderickson, Robert. Word and phrase origins, New York, 1997. 16) Jokli, Norbert. Naim be Frashëri e pasunimi i gjuhës shqipe, Gjurmime albanologjike, seria shkencore filologjike II, 1972, Prishtinë, 1974. 17) Kabashi, Jashar. English Grammar Morphology, Prishtine, 2000. 18) Kadare, Ismail. Përbindëshi, Tiranë, 2005. 19) Kostallari, A. Mbi disa veçori të fjalës së përbërë në gjuhë shqipeë Studime mbi leksikun dhe mbi formimin e fjalëve në gjuhën shqipe I, Tiranë 1972. 20) Liz and John Soars, New Headway “dvanced, Student’s book, Oxford, 2003. 21) Master, Peter. English grammar and technical writing, Washington, 2004. 22) Millaku, Sh. (2009). Kontributi i Zellik Harris për gjuhësinë, IASH. Tetovë. 23) Millaku, Sh. (2015). Kërkime gjuhësore. Prizren. 24) Millaku, Sh. (2011). Studime gjuhësore I. Prishtinë. 25) Millaku, Sh. (2011). Strukturat sintaksore. Prishtinë. 26) Millaku, Sh. (2009). (Profesor Selman Riza dhe Albanologjia) Studimet e Selman Rizes në fushën e morfologjisë. Korçë, f. 143-150. 27) Millaku, Sh. (2011). Historiku i nyjës se prapme (kontrast me gjuhët ballkanike), Edukologjia, nr.2, f.81-96. Prishtinë. 28) Newmark, Leonard; Philip Hubbard, Peter Prifti, Standard Albanian, California, 1982. European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 3 │ 2016 110 Shkelqim Millaku, Xhevahire Topanica THE COMPOUND NOUNS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN LANGUAGE 29) Qesku, Pavli. Fjalor Anglisht-Shqip, English-Albanian Dictionery, Tiranë, 2002. 30) Quirk, Randolph; Sidney Greenbaum, University Grammar of English, London, 1973. 31) Shakespeare, William. Measure for Measure, London, 1995. 32) Shakespeare, William. Measure for Measure, London, 199t. 33) Shakespeare, William. Richard III, Denmark, 1993. 34) Shakespeare, William. The Winter’s Tale, Denmark, 1995. 35) Thomaj,Jani. Leksikologjia e gjuhës shqipe, Tiranë,1974. 36) Veljko Gortan, Oton Gorski, Pavao Paush, Gramatika latine, Prishtinë, 1985. 37) Xhuvani, “leksande. Kompozitat’’, Studime mbi leksikun dhe mbi formimin e fjalëve në gjuhën shqipe I, Tiranë 1972. 38) Yule, George. Oxford practice grammar, Oxford, 2008. 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