European Journal of Education Studies
ISSN: 2501 - 1111
ISSN-L: 2501 - 1111
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
10.5281/zenodo.167054 Volume 2│Issue 9│2016
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND
SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN THE PROCESS OF THE
REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READINGi
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo1, Romeo Mano2
Mcs., Department of Teaching Methodology and Educational Sciences,
1
University Eqerem Cabej , Gjirokaster, “lbania
2Dr., Department of Mathematics - Informatics
University Eqerem Cabej , Gjirokaster, “lbania
Abstract:
In the last two decades, we have observed a clear and growing interest in the didactics
and assessment of meaningful reading as an indication of linguistic sub-competence.
Many scholars have considered it as a complex and multidimensional process because
understanding was considered in a large percentage the reason for a student’s success or
failure and in many respects it constitutes the criterion for being considered a literate or
educated person. This study is focused on the problems of implementing the teaching
of meaningful reading as a psychological phenomenon. If the scholars agree on the
definition of meaningful reading, the on-going instructional debate has to do with the
finding of a kind of consensus on the realization of meaning in reading. It is difficult to
achieve a full understanding of the meaning of the cognition and metacognition
processes, due to their indeterminate nature. Nevertheless, the data from the research
literature in the field of reading competence indicate that there exists a growing
consensus concerning the effective teaching practices, in addition to the pedagogical
models, and this is very promising for the improvement of meaningful reading skills.
The aim of this study is to argue for the best psycho-pedagogical models, which
constitute the basis of finding a growing consensus of the best practices of effectively
teaching meaningful reading. The most representative models of the study of meaningful
reading are divided into three main categories: Models of Cognitive Psychology, those of
Socio-cultural Psychology and those of Social-cognitive Psychology. In the didactic
practice of learning meaningful reading, certain interactive reading process models are
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved 74
Published by Open Access Publishing Group ©2015.
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
used. These are oriented towards the mental processes of learning in a continuous
exchange of information between the student and the text, as well as towards the social-
cultural linguistic factors of the text (the functional grammar of the text) conditioned by
the situational context of the communication. The holistic contemporary model of the
meaningful reading process is built on the basis of these models. The problems raised
have to do with two factors: first, is the teaching of meaningful reading mostly focused on
the grammar of the text? Or second, on the activation of higher-order thinking skills
which engage the learner’s critical thinking skills?
Realization of the study: in order to study the didactic approaches and influences on
meaningful reading (as a dependent variable), two independent variables have been
determined: (a.) linguistic-social-cultural factors of the text (i.e. the functional grammar of
the text) conditioned by the social-cultural context of the communication. (b.) The
reflective mental activities utilized to understand the meaning of the text (graphic
organizers and Higher-order thinking). This study will analyse the influence of the
linguistic socio-cultural factors of the text and that of the Higher-order thinking skills of
the student-reader on the development of critical thinking while reading, based on the
didactic activities of teaching in the book of Albanian language 6-9.
The method of research is the study of the relations between the factors as a cause and
effect relationship type through the results of statistical processing of quantitative and
qualitative data using the software SPSS (version 21).
Keywords: linguistic competence, meaningful reading, samples of meaning realization,
the reader, the text and the context
Introduction
After the year 1990, academic interest in the study of language has been focused on the
communicative function according to the text-based approach. Teaching and learning
language at school now takes a special significance, as the instructional interest shifts
from the lesson focused on language as an object of study, to the treatment of language
as a cross-curricular descriptive competence of the overall school programme (language
and multi-literacy\-ies across the curriculum). The competency of communication in
language involves three dimensions: (1). A communication dimension; the skill to use
and understand language in authentic situations. (2). A text-based linguistic dimension;
the learning of grammatical phenomena in complete structured texts for a concrete
intention. (3). A critical thinking dimension; the skill of the students to understand and
to produce different kinds of texts as well as to build their own knowledge.
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 75
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
The interest of this study is focused on the treatment of meaningful reading as a
linguistic sub-competence wherein comprehension is considered in large part the reason
for success or failure of the students, constituting the criterion for someone to be
considered literate. The scientific discussions and studies on the meaning of reading,
reading for learning and teaching of reading, have become more complicated and
sometimes also confusing. Despite that, a growing consensus has been observed
concerning the best practices of effective teaching, in addition to the pedagogical
models, which means that classroom teachers must mix the best elements of these
models. The interactive reading process models of the cognitive and social-constructive
psychology are among the best teaching models when the goal is reading for
comprehension. These models differ regarding which factor they emphasize the most.
The common point is the conceptualization of reading as a process of active interaction
of the reader with the text, conditioned by the social-cultural context of communication.
The research studies on meaningful reading identified and confirmed the
difficulties students have related to the different kinds of texts, types of reading
methods, the intention for which a text was written, overemphasis on language learning
(mainly of literary texts), exercises of a transformative type and the learning of
metalanguage, etc. This encouraged scholars to focus their attention on the study of the
procedures which produce the written discourse. Meaningful reading constitutes a
complex cerebral and creative activity which demands motivation and claims, in
addition to the great mnemonic skill, also the synchronized activation of many
cognitive processes. The text should be conceptualized as a social-cultural creation
which drives at the writer’s intention and the reader’s perception. The text is perceived
as the writer’s text and the reader’s text. “s a result, different kinds of texts end up in
different schemes of thinking, understanding and creating. This directed the attention
of the scholars to the treatment of such issues as: the selection of different types of text,
the functional grammar of the text (structure, style, social-cultural context, writer,
reader, etc , and the reflective mental procedure upon the text’s content and meaning,
etc.
Literary competence in reading
The Programme of the Albanian Language develops the competence of communication
through the intertwining of five themes which function in unison: reading, writing,
listening, speaking and knowledge of the linguistic system. In the new instructional
programme of Albanian Language, 6-9, 2014, the linguistic sub-competence in reading
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 76
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
is realized through the section, Reading literary and non-literary texts.ii In the new
instructional program of Albanian language, the sub-competence of meaningful reading
is described as follows: The students read literary and non-literary texts which belong
to different periods, both classic and contemporary texts of Albanian and world
literature and they demonstrate the meaning, the interpretation and analysis and the
evaluation and judgement based on these texts (suitable for the age development of the
students). With the reformation of the Albanian Educational System after the year 2000,
there is an observable shift from the traditional concept of rigidly learning the grammar
of the linguistic system, towards a more functional, text-based approach to linguistic
study.
Levels of understanding in reading
Kintsch, W. (2002) refers to three levels of understanding a text:
a. Superficial understanding (the surface level). It is understanding of the words,
phrases or diagrams, without going deep into understanding. In this level, the
student may remember a few words or phrases from the text.
b. Basic understanding (the text-based level). It is the semasiological structure
which stems from the text without the consideration of other elements which are
not discussed directly in the text (i.e. the core content itself).
c. Situational or contextual understanding (the situational/contextual level), is the
full and detailed understanding of the text. In this case, the student should make
the connection between the existing knowledge and prior knowledge in order to
build the full meaning of the text, completely and coherently within the social-
cultural context, or the intention for which it is written by the author.
Theoretical models on the realization of meaningful reading
Three primary groupings are observed concerning the theoretical analysis of
contemporary literature as it relates to the educational debate on the process of
realization of meaningful reading: (a) cognitive models, (b) social-cultural models and
(c) social-cognitive models.
a. Cognitive models
According to Cognitive Psychology, understanding is achieved through an active
process whereby the reader tries to create mental representations of the text at a micro-
http://www.arsimi.gov.al/files/userfiles/kurrikula/PROGRAMI_GJUHE_SHQIPE,_shkalla_3.pdf
ii
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 77
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
level (using words and sentences) and macro-level (using semasiological meaning and
text structure).
b. Social-Cultural models
The development of cognitive skills in writing and reading to facilitate learning are not
a simple psychological process, but more so a social-psychological activity. According
to Vigotsky 1978, the social factor precedes the individual factor and consolidates the
cognitive factor. Spoken and written text is considered dependent on social parameters
of communication. Meanwhile, in the moment of its articulation, it creates new
parameters and consequences. The contemporary social-cultural viewpoints on
understanding texts rely on Halliday’s linguistic semiotic-functional theory and on the
movement of pedagogy according to the text-based approach. His theory is focused on
the kind of text as a means to conduct analysis and learn language at school. The basic
linguistic concept is that of a social semiotic system, on which meanings are built and
exchanged and which is directly related to social reality. According to this theory the
meaning of the texts stem from the linguistic relationships within the text as well as
from the interaction of the text with the social contexts to which it refers. In this way,
written discourse is simply the active use of the text in various communication contexts.
The basic linguistic and social-cultural components used to build meaning are:
Language (both text and context). Language, according to semiotic-social conceivability,
produces meaning during its use through different kinds and types of text. The
organization and structures of texts become the focus of study object, not simply the
isolated components, such as words and sentences. The meaning of the text becomes
negotiable through the elements of style, i.e. linguistic social-semasiologic variants
(Halliday 1989). Through this component is interpreted the sytematic relation between
the text and the context, or between the text and the social practice that the text
actualizes.
According to Halliday, the style is determined by the elements of the context of
communication (context of situation) and namely: (1.) the field of instruction (or field of
discourse), thus, what happens? (2.) The contextual roles of the interlocutors engaged in
the communication (tenor of discourse), namely who takes part in the discourse? (3.) The
method of instruction (mode of discourse), thus, how are the meanings exchanged and
negotiated (Halliday 1989). These three factors affect the context of the selected
language and influence the construction of the text. The field represents the
representative metafunctioning of our experience in the world (ideational
metafunction); interlocutory roles are related with the interpersonal function of the
semasiologic system of language; the way of the discourse type is related with the textual
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 78
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
semasiologic metafunction, the way through which language functions as an
instrument of structuring the message in relation with the holistic process of
communication (Halliday 1989).
The theory of the stylistic field evolves further with the concept of the text genre.
The theoreticians of text genres aim at rejoining language with its social context in a
more systematic way for school education. The text genre constitutes a category which
describes the relationship between a text’s social-cultural aims and the organized
structure of its meaning (Cope & Kalantzis 1993). There exists in every culture multiple
and various text genres, each of them serving a different social aim.
c. Social-cognitive models
According to the social-cognitive models, understanding of a text is realized in a social-
cognitive environment of learning. The meaningful reading is conceptualized as a
complex dynamic process during which meet the cognitive, linguistic and social factors
as well as respective skills. Learning environment is focused on the student’s mental
processes as well as on the text’s social-linguistic factors which determine
understanding as a social-cultural process conditioned by the context of
communication.
Contemporary model of meaningful reading
Understanding a given text from both the traditional and contemporary points of
view
The contemporary model differs from the traditional model in two aspects:
a. In the traditional model the message of the text is received in a passive way and in
the reproduction of the words of the text as an entirety of hierarchic skills. In the
contemporary model, the understanding is perceived as a building process and is built
with the reader’s active involvement and interaction with the text. The reading skills are
conceived as a grouping of skills acting in concert, which gain meaning from the
context of the communication.
b. The role of the reader in understanding a given text has evolved. In the traditional
model the meaning existed inside the text as determined by the writer. The reader
simply had to discover it. In the contemporary model, the reader instead builds the
meaning of the text than reproduces the words of the text.
The process of building the meaning of the text presupposes the intertwining of
several factors: (1) experiences of the reader in the reading situation; (2) characteristics
of the written text; (3) text content, which determines the duty and the aim of the writer
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 79
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
and reader; (4) the reader’s mental structures in the process of building the meaning of
the text; (5) environment learning.
Figure 1: Interrelation of the basic components of the meaningful reading model
Source: The Author
Contemporary textual viewpoint of reading in order to understand
Based on the best theoretical models on the realization of understanding in reading, in
the contemporary point of view, understanding in reading is conceived as an
intertwining of three basic components: text, reader and class environment (Figure 1).
(Irwin 1986). Reading involves the use of judgment, of critical thinking, understanding
and communication. Meaningful reading is necessary in all the cognitive functions, such
as problem solving and decision making. ΜcNamara, .
The text refers to the reading material and it can be analyzed from four viewpoints: (a)
writer’s intention b structure c content and d situating in context. The writer’s
intention determines also the orientation of the other elements (Schraw, 1998). Both the
writer’s intention and genre of the text determine the context of the communication
when it is read. They may be texts for personal or private use, for public use, or for
educational use, etc. The writer may desire to act in the reader’s emotional sphere, their
cognitive sphere, or to influence the reader’s volitional behaviour by orienting the
reader a certain way, etc.
The reading factor constitutes the most complex component of understanding in the
model. The reader realizes the process of meaningful reading through the cognitive and
emotional structures they have at their disposal. They also implement procedures
which will assist them in understanding the text.
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 80
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
Figure 2: Interaction of the factor Reader with Procedures and Structures
Source: The Author
Statistical analysis
In order to carry out the statistical study we gathered primary data by means of a
questionnaire (survey). The survey was conducted by the teachers of language and
literature who teach these two subjects in the Schools of Gjirokastra. The District of
Gjirokastra, which in general constitutes the environment (survey population) which
we are studying, has in general 85 teachers in the field of language and literature. The
focus of our study is not the demographic distribution of Critical thinking in reading; for
this reason we were contented with the selection of an easily accessable sample group
which ensures the requisite number for a statistical representation of the population.
We included 29 teachers of languages and literature in our study. They constitute 34%
of the population of all the teachers of this school subject.
The empirical study of data aimed at statistically studying and determining the
relations between the dependant variable Critical thinking in reading and two other
factors: (1) the text (functional grammar of text and communication) and (2) advance
organizer & higher-order thinking, which are treated as independant variables. Such
conceptualisation of the treatment of critical thinking in reading was realized based on
a) the analysis of texts of albanian language used in middle schools (6-9) and b) the
argumentative analysis of contemporary literature of the social-cognitive theoretical
model (Flower, 1994) of the realization of meaningful reading in the subject mattter
albanian language.The independant variable functional grammar of text and
communication (the social cultural-linguistic factors of the text) was realized based on
the linguistic systemic-cultural theory (Halliday 1989) and on the systemic-functional
model for language learning and teaching (Rothery 1994). Independant variable 2
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 81
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
advance organizer and higher-order thinking, represents the mental procedures of processing
text. (see Figure 2).
The dependant variable is directly represented in the instrument used for data
collection by means of question P4 (see Questionnarie). It is measured by the principle of
the division of the level of teachers’ perception into three levels Little = 1; Satisfactory =
2; Considerable = 3. The two other factors which are treated as independent variables are
represented in the questionnaire by a group of questions which measure the teachers’
level of perception according to the above three levels (see Table 1 and Questionnaire).
For this reason, both independent variables are measured by means of real values
provided as simple arithmetic averages of the respective ordinal values of questions
they represent.
Table 1: Variables, their labeling and measuring
Kind of The Questions
Name of Variable The Way of Measuring
Variable which Represent It
Dependent Critical thinking in Perception level according to
P4
Variables reading Likert scale (1-3)
Linguistic and social-
Arithmetic average of the values
cultural factors of
P1a,1b,P2a,2b,2c,2d of answers for the questions
communication
P3a,3b, 3c,3d,3e which they represent measured
Independent (Functional grammar of
with Likert scale (1-3)
Variables text and communication)
Advance organizers & Arithmetic average of the values
higher Order Thinking of answers for the questions
P10, P5a,b,c,d,e,
(Mental processing which they represent measured
activities) with Likert scale (1-3)
The main method used to study the statistical data and verify the hypotheses through
results that this method enables is the type of cause-consequence relationship. The
cause-consequence relationships are a general model of the analysis used by inferential
statistics. They are classified into two main groups: (i) statistical relations (correlations)
between independent variables and (ii) functional relations (regressive equations)
between dependent variable and independent variables. Statistical relations aim at
determining the correlative relationships between independent variables, whereas the
functional relations aim at identifying the level of influence of each of the variables on
the dependent variable as well as building a representative model offered by the sample
selected for study. A part of statistical study is also the descriptive analysis of the data
with the intention of reaching as clear as possible conclusions on the results of statistical
elaboration in general. Statistical processing of data is realized using the software SPSS
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 82
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
version 21. Summarizing it in steps, the process of statistical study of the work is
submitted to the algorithm presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3: The diagram of statistical study of the data
Our study aims at giving an answer to the question: What is the extent of the influence on
the development of critical thinking in reading a of the activation of the student’s higher-order
thinking? b How much does the study of a text’s functional grammar influence the student’s
understanding of a text (linguistic social-cultural factors of the genre of the text) through the
active interaction of the student with the text? (In teaching of meaningful reading, classes 6-9)
In order to provide an answer to the above research questions, we have built the
statistical hypotheses:
Hypothesis zero (H0): The linguistic socio-cultural factors of text and Advance
organizer and higher order thinking factors do not exercise any influence on Critical
thinking in reading.
Alternative hypothesis (Ha): The linguistic socio-cultural factors of text and
advance organizer and higher order thinking factors do exercise influence on critical
thinking in reading.
The verification of hypotheses is made by means of the model offered by the
study of functional relations through coefficients of linear regression, thus when the
coefficients of regression are simultaneously zero then it is accepted that hypothesis H0
is true, in any other case alternative hypothesis Ha is accepted.
The results for the elements of descriptive statistics, determined by the
elaboration of the data presented in Table 2, indicate that the average of the observed
values for Critical thinking in reading (variable (Y), is significantly above the theoretical
average of probable values that this variable may take, whereas for the two other
variables, The social-cultural linguistic factors of communication (X1) and Strategies and skills
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 83
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
of meaningful reading (X2), is below the theoretical average provided by the probable
values for these variables. Thus, knowing that the probable values, or otherwise,
probable alternatives to respond to the questions that these variables represent, are 1 to
3, they have an arithmetic (theoretical) average equal 2. For these variables we have
noticed that the average observed only for the dependent variable is above the
theoretical average (Y = 2.21), whereas for the two independent variables it is below the
theoretical average (X1=1.90; X2 =1.98).
Table 2: Elements of Descriptive Statistics
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Critical thinking in reading 1.00 3.00 2.2143 .56811
The social – cultural linguistic factors of text
Text’s functional grammar 1.29 2.43 1.9014 .28761
Advance organizer and higher order thinking
(Data processing activities) 1.43 2.67 1.9817 .29864
Source: Output of SPSS v.21
But, in the three cases, as it can be seen also in the table, the observed average is very
close to the theoretical average, which means that we have no appearance of tendencies
of maximization of anyone of them. The sustainability of this phenomenon is
strengthened by the low value of deviation which in our worst case is s(Y2)=0.57. The
result of descriptive statistics for the variables which take part in the research study
indicates the average levels of perception on the social-cultural linguistic factors and
advance organizer and higher order thinking are associated with an average level of the
result for Critical thinking in reading.
The observed correlation in relationships (see Table 3) between the variables
which take part in the verification of the hypothesis indicates that we have a strong
statistical significance (0.01< p <0.05) in the calculation of the correlation coefficient
(PCC=0.603) between the independent variables. This indicates that both the independent
variables develop their values in the same direction.
Table 3: Correlative matrix for variables
Social-cultural Factors of
communication
Advance organizer and higher order Pearson Correlation .603**
thinking Sig. (2-tailed) .001
Source: Output of SPSS v.21
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 84
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
It can be observed that the level of the values of PCC-s between these variables, does
not pass the threshold (PCC >0.8) of the risk of the phenomena of multicollinearity*,
which would bring anomalies in the calculation of linear regression parameters.
Therefore, based on the meaning of multicollinearity, the model we have chosen to employ for
the verification of statistical hypothesis is correct.
From the data elaboration, the model we have used shows the calculation of the
linear regression coefficients make verification of the statistical hypothesis possible. In
Table 4 we notice that the coefficients i are different from zero, a fact which proves the
constancy of the alternative hypothesis. Thus, the data collected from the teachers’
sample indicates that The linguistic socio-cultural factors of text and Advance organizer
and Higher Order Thinking factors are a significant influence on Critical thinking in
reading.
.
Table 4: Results of the linear regression model
Unstandardized Standardized
Model Coefficients Coefficients t
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 1.081 .810 1.334
The functional grammar of the text .535 .475 .270 1.127
Higher order thinking (Data processing
.056 .449 .030 .124
activities)
Source: Output of SPSS v.21
The results of the linear regression model, in addition to the verification of statistical
hypothesis, make possible the statistical evaluation of the nature and level of influence
of each independent variable on the dependent variable. Thus, we notice that
1 0.535 0 , which means that the independent linguistic Socio-cultural factors of the
text exercise a positive influence on the dependant variable advance organizer and
higher order thinking. In the same way, the independent variable Strategies and skills of
meaningful reading increases the level of Critical thinking in reading by exercising a
positive influence on it β =0.056>0
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 85
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
Figure 4: Comparison of the level of influence of the independent factors
Source: The Author
Linear regression coefficients (see Figure 4) express also the level of the influence of
each of the regressors on Critical thinking in reading. Figure 4 represents a chart showing
the level of influence of each of the independent variables on the dependant variable. A
simple calculation shows that The linguistic socio-cultural factors of text exercise a positive
influence on Critical thinking in reading that is almost 10 times greater than the other
factor, Advance organizer and Higher Order Thinking.
Figure 5: Generalizing model of the Critical Thinking in Reading variable
Source: Output of SPSS v.21
Inferential statistical studies, in addition to the results acquired for the sample studied,
offer the opportunity to create more general models. In the results of descriptive
statistics we notice that the observed average of Critical thinking in reading is 2.21, with a
standard deviation of s(Y) =0.57. Statistical elaboration of the data shows that the
dependant variable, under the simultaneous influence of the two independent
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 86
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
variables, provides a generalizing model (Figure 5) with a mathematical expectation of
the dependant, Critical thinking in reading, lower than that observed [E(Y) = 1.94] and
almost on the same levels with the observed averages for independent variables. This
result makes the conclusion reached from the descriptive statistics more durable: the
average levels of perception on the linguistic socio-cultural factors of text and advance
organizer and higher order thinking are associated with an average level of the result of
The critical thinking in reading.
Conclusions
In summarizing the results of the statistical study of the data collected by the sample of
teachers of the language and literature in Gjirokastra, we may say that:
i. There exists a close relation between The critical thinking in reading expressed
through the perception according to the Likert scale from 1 to 3 and two other
factors which influence the meaningful reading: Data processing activities and the
Socio-cultural factors of communication.
ii. The linguistic-socio-cultural factors of text exercise a positive influence on Critical
thinking in reading almost 10 times higher than the other factor Advance organizer
and higher order thinking.
iii. The average value observed (2.21) of the critical thinking in reading differs
significantly from the mathematical expectation (1.94) offered by the model built
with the observed data. But the generalizing model concludes that the average
level of perception on the linguistic and social cultural factors of communication
and advance organizer and higher order thinking are associated with an average
level of the result for Critical thinking in reading.
This conceptualization in the treatment of critical thinking in reading was
determined based (a.) on the analysis of the Albanian language texts for the higher and
lower educational levels (6-9) and (b.) on the argumentative analysis of contemporary
literature on the theoretical meaning in the subject matter of Albanian language.
The study result indicates that there is a high sensitiveness on the teachers’ part
towards the text factor in its holistic meaning. This is explained by the fact that the
teachers of middle schools lack the appropriate experience and education about the
contemporary pedagogical trends of language teaching according to the text-based
approach, which is still unconsolidated and its infancy in Albania. On the other hand,
considering the fact that they consider it as an instructional innovation, they have the
tendency to embrace it without due consideration. An uncertainty is observed in the
teachers’ cultivation related with the process of realization of deep understanding of the
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 87
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
text. To what extent do the two interactive factors (reader and text) affect meaningful
reading? Where should the instructional activities be focused on mostly? a) on the study
of the structure of text b on the activation of the student’s Higher Order structures,
which structuralize the text meaning? reader’s text c or should they have the same
priority in teaching?
It is clear to the teachers that the aim of meaningful reading is the realization of a
deep understanding of meaning (students garnering a comprehensive and broadly
contextualized understanding of the text with which they are engaging) and
development of critical thinking in the reader. This is also observed in the general result
of the influence (a.) of the instructional activities (questions of general meaning and
questions of meaningful linguistic and stylistic interpretation and reflection) which
reveal a text’s broader meaning according to its structuring elements (grammar) and
(b.) of the instructional activities of activation of higher order structures of the
elaboration of meaning.
Deep understanding contains both the meaning of understanding as well as the
opportunity of data employment, the set of problems on text meaning, but also the
active and interactive role of the reader in the building of meaning through the written
text.
In a summarized way, I refer to the general trends of contemporary experiences
in the teaching of meaningful reading:
Constructivism shifted the teachers’ interest from the text to the students’ mental
mechanisms of text understanding (due to the level of difficulty of text
comprehensibility and the indicators of students’ readability. ”ut it does not deny the
role of the text. The question arises: Where should we seek the text meaning? In the
writer’s mind text base ? In the reader’s mind, who structures and builds the text
meaning during the reading process? Or in the interaction between the reader and text/
Constructivists stick to the third thesis. According to the constructivists,
understanding should be sought in the cutting point of the meaning of the reader, of the
text and text content. (Schoenbach et al, 1999).
(Kern, 2000), refers to three trends:
a) Teaching focused on the text (product-approach, text based),
b) Teaching focused on the process (process-approach)
c) Teaching focused on the genre of the text (genre-based approach).
That which is needed, according to Kern, is a trend which will have the reader at
its epicenter (following an integrative, student-centered approach), but which will
respond simultaneously to the interaction and interdependence of the textual product,
of cognitive processes and of socio-cultural factors. Thus, a trend, which should be
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 88
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
focused on meaning, the same way as it is structured through the form in a cultural
context. In recent years, we’ve observed trends of application of constructive and social-
cultural models. More recently, we’ve seen the social-cognitive model in teaching of
textual understanding being more widely embraced (Flower, 2003). The main place in
the theoretical social-cognitive model is increasingly occupied by the teaching of
process-genre based approach model (referred to Spandidakis, 2009). In addition to the
procedures, knowledge and strategies necessary for text production,
Stress is also placed on the meaning of the text and its genre. Textual content,
base and style represent concrete social-cultural characteristics of the location (time and
place) in which the text was produced. The analysis of situating in context (both setting
and contextualization) is necessary for the writer and the reader alike, in order to build
the analogue meaning according to the situational context. In this regard, learning of
knowledge and habits which are related with the text constitute a social activity, as the
method by which repeated situations of communication are constructed. For example,
the relationship between the author and the reader may be understood through the lens
of a historical context as it relates to a specific community.
The scholars raise the question of what to teach students about meaningful
reading. Pedagogical studies and instructional practices indicate that the students
should learn text genres and how they are used in specific contexts of communication.
They should also develop the skills, knowledge and strategies as instruments for the
development of competent communication through different text genres and they
should develop metacognitive skills in meaningful reading.
Students should be able to reflect, judge and evaluate a written text. They should
use genres of text within the correct context of communication. They should utilize a
critical approach towards the text and the reality to which the text refers. Before the
students learn to write a certain text, they should learn that text’s grammatical functions
as a process of building the meaning and writing the text. According to the cognitive
psychology and constructivism, the written text is conceptualized as a holistic process
of building up meaning, in which understanding a text and writing a text are treated as
two cognitive processes of constructing the overall meaning of the text.
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 89
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
Questionnaire
In the framework of a study on the most important factors which assist in the
improvement of the level of critic thinking, the active meaningful learning capacity and
meaningful reading of a school text and an extracurricular text, this questionnaire will
serve as important information.
Your answers are completely anonymous and confidential.
Please, answer by circling the respective number for each of the following assertions:
A little = 1; Satisfactory = 2; Highly = 3.
No. of the Questions-Strategies Little Satisfactory Highly
question
How much is the selection of reading texts represented in the
1
subject matter of the Albanian language?
1.a Literary text 1 2 3
1.b Non-literary text 1 2 3
How much do you think that the non literary text shoud be
2
represented?
2.a Argumentative text 1 2 3
2.b Advicing text 1 2 3
2.c Text of comparison-contrast 1 2 3
2.d Descriptive-informative text 1 2 3
During the teaching of the line “reading” of the literary
textshow much do you think the following elements
3
ofmeaningfl reading influence in understanding of a given
text?
Text content and communication context. (macro dhe
3.a 1 2 3
microcontext)
3.b Text structure (history grammar) 1 2 3
3.c Habitsand strategies of text understanding 1 2 3
3.d Comparison between two texts (from content and structure) 1 2 3
3.e Style and stylistical language of the text 1 2 3
How much do you think that the questions of the school book
4 of Albanian language develop the critic and creative 1 2 3
thinkingduring reading?
How much do you think that through teaching of the line
5 “understanding” are developed the habits of depth
understanding?
5.a Comparison 1 2 3
5.b Analysis –Synthesis 1 2 3
5.c Self-arrangement of understanding 1 2 3
5.d Judgment –Argumentation 1 2 3
5.e Assessment
Thank you for being a part of this study.
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 90
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
References
1. Hayes,J.R. (1996). A New Model of Cognition and Affect in Writing. In M. Levy
& Ransdell (Eds.), The Science of Writing. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
2. Kress, G.ed. (1993b). Communication and Culture: An Introduction. Australia:
New South Wales University Press.
3. Kress, G. a . Texture and Meaning , in “ndrews, R., ed. Narrative and
Argument. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
4. Kress, G. (1989b). Linguistic Processes in Sociocultural Practice. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
5. Kress, G. a . Genre as Social Process , in Cope, ”. & M. Kalantzis, eds. The
Powers of Literacy: A Genre Approach to Teaching Writing. London: Falmer
Press.
6. Kress, G.ed. (1993b). Communication and Culture: An Introduction. Australia:
New South Wales University Press
7. Knapp, P., and M.,Watkins, (1994). Context-Text-Grammar: Teaching the Genres
and Grammar of School Writing in Infants and Primary Classrooms (Teacher
Resource Book). Australia: Text Production.
8. Halliday, M. A. K. & Hasan, R. (1989). Language, Context and Texts Aspects of
Language in a Social Semiotic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
9. Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as a Social Semiotic. The Social
Interpretation of Language and Meaning. London: Edward Arnold
10. Βamboukas, Μ. . Psycho-pedagogical Conceptualization of Understanding
in Reading, Grigori, Athens.
11. Fairclough, Norman (1992b). Discourse and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity
Press
12. Van Dijk, T., & Kintsch, W. (1983). Strategies Discourse Comprehension. New
York, NJ: Academic Press.
13. Smith, F. (2006). Duke kuptuar te lexuarit, Epikentro, 2006.
14. McNamara, D.S., Kintsch, W. (1996) "Learning from Texts: Effects of Prior
Knowledge and Text Coherence" Discourse Processes 23: 247-288
15. Martin, R.J. & Rothery, J. (1993). Grammar: Making Meaning in Writing. A Genre
Approach to Teaching Writing, (ed.) Cope, B. & Kalantzis, M. The Falmer Press.
16. McCarthy, M. & Carter, R. (1994). Language as Discourse: Perspectives for
Language Teaching. London and New York, Longman
17. Marsh, G., Friedman, M., Welsh, V., & Desberg, P. (1981). A Cognitive
Developmental Theory of Reading Acquisition. In G. E. MacKinnon and T. G.
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 91
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
Waller (Eds.), Reading Research: Advances in Theory and Practice (pp. 199-221).
New York: Academic Press.
18. Haberlandt, K. (1988). Component Processes in Reading Comprehension.
Reading Research: Advances in Theory and Practice, 6.
19. Flower, L.S. & Hayes, IR (1990b): The Cognition of Discovery: Defining a
Rherotical Problem. College Composition and Communication.
20. Kekia, Ai. Literacy Pedagogy Approach Text Genres, Adelfon Kyriakidi, Athine
2011.
21. Irwin, J. 1986. Teaching Reading Comprehensions Processes. Englewood, New
Jersez, Prentice-Hall.
22. Giasson, J Meaningful Reading. Ekdoseis Grigori, Athens 2014.
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 92
Zhuljeta Cinga–Lilo, Romeo Mano -
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PSYCHO-COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS IN
THE PROCESS OF THE REALIZATION OF UNDERSTANDING IN READING
Creative Commons licensing terms
Author(s) will retain the copyright of their published articles agreeing that a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0) terms
will be applied to their work. Under the terms of this license, no permission is required from the author(s) or publisher for members of the community
to copy, distribute, transmit or adapt the article content, providing a proper, prominent and unambiguous attribution to the authors in a manner that
makes clear that the materials are being reused under permission of a Creative Commons License. Views, opinions and conclusions expressed in this
research article are views, opinions and conclusions of the author(s). Open Access Publishing Group and European Journal of Education Studies shall
not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability caused in relation to/arising out of conflicts of interest, copyright violations and
inappropriate or inaccurate use of any kind content related or integrated into the research work. All the published works are meeting the Open Access
Publishing requirements and can be freely accessed, shared, modified, distributed and used in educational, commercial and non-commercial purposes
under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0).
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 9 │ 2016 93