European Journal of Education Studies
ISSN: 2501 - 1111
ISSN-L: 2501 - 1111
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
10.5281/zenodo.200195
Volume 2│Issue 11│2016
EXPLORING SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF
PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEYi
Reyhan Ağçamii1, Muzaffer Pınar Babanoğlu2
Faculty of Education, Kahramanmaraş S(tç( İmam University, Turkey
1
Faculty of “rts and Sciences, Kahramanmaraş S(tç( İmam University, Turkey
2
Abstract:
Analyzing teacher self-efficacy has been a prominent issue in educational research since
late
s. Teacher efficacy basically refers to teachers’ beliefs in their abilities to
organize and execute courses of action necessary to bring about desired results
(Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). This study attempts to examine self-efficacy beliefs of
teachers working at primary state schools in Turkey regarding dimensions such as
instruction, adapting instruction to individual needs, motivating students, and
maintaining discipline. It specifically aims to reveal whether gender and experience
have a significant influence on the teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. Data obtained from the
participants’ responses to the items in the Norwegian Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale
(Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010) were analysed using SPSS Version 17.0. Findings of the
study suggest that teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs are improved through gaining
professional experience, and that female teachers seem to have lower self-efficacy
beliefs than their male colleagues with respect to motivating students, keeping
discipline in classroom, and coping with challenges. The study concludes with practical
implications of the findings, and a few suggestions for further directions.
Keywords: self-efficacy, experience, gender, teacher
The study was orally presented with the title of “n investigation on self-efficacy beliefs of primary
school teachers in Turkey at “TINER: “ Panel on Teacher Training which was held in “thens, Greece
13-16 June 2016.
ii Correspondence: email reyhanagcam@gmail.com
i
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved
Published by Open Access Publishing Group ©2015.
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Reyhan Ağçam, Muzaffer Pınar Babanoğlu EXPLORING SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY
1. Introduction
Self-efficacy is a self-system that controls most personal activity, including appropriate
use of professional knowledge and skills and as it reflects in the ability to exert control
over one’s motivation, behaviour and social environment Gavora,
: ). It refers to
or an individual’s belief in his/her own abilities to deal with various situations, and it
can play a role in not only how s/he feels about his or herself but whether or not s/he is
successfully achieve his/her goals in life. The concept of self-efficacy is the major
component of ”andura’s
Social Cognitive Theory which highlights the role of
observational learning, social experience and reciprocal determinism in developing a
personality. ”eliefs in one’s capabilities organize and execute the courses of action
required to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1997: 3). Sources of self-efficacy
consist of four dimensions as mastery experience (personal successes are considered to
build a robust belief in one’s self-efficacy), vicarious experience (presence of a
successful role model rises observers’ beliefs in themselves , social persuasions verbal
persuasion of people about their potential once they try hard), and emotional states
(fear, stress, and anxiety lower the self-efficacy) (Bandura, 1994). In respect of the
degree of self-efficacy, high sense of self-efficacy for a given task leads to setting higher
goals, and decreases fear of failure; so, people with high self-efficacy are likely to come
up with new strategies when the existing ones fail. In response to this, lower sense of
self-efficacy is prone to result in avoiding the task or giving up easily when difficulties
arise (Bandura, 1993; Zimmerman, 1995). Likewise, Flammer (1995) suggests that both
children and adults with high expectations and optimistic beliefs about the future tend
to be mentally and physically more healthy, less depressed, and more motivated to
achieve. The following section is intended to outline related literature on teacher selfefficacy.
2. Literature Review
Teacher self-efficacy is the belief that teachers have about their abilities and skills as
educator, and it is viewed an important characteristic of the teacher and strongly
related to success in teaching (Gavora, 2012). Namely, Orange (2005: 149) advocates that
teachers with high self-efficacy are likely to develop the belief that they can reach even
the most difficult students and help them learn. Therefore, teacher self-efficacy is an
indispensible component of teaching profession and education. Accordingly, teachers
who start their careers with low self-efficacy tend to find better instructional strategies
to improve their teaching performance over time, thus increasing their sense of efficacy,
or to leave the profession once they fail to do so (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007: 18).
On the other hand, OECD’s Teaching and Learning International Survey T“LIS
(2008), a wide project aiming effective teaching and learning in schools, was carried out
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Reyhan Ağçam, Muzaffer Pınar Babanoğlu EXPLORING SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY
in 24 countries with the participation of more than 70.000 teachers between the years
2007 and 2008, was partly related to teacher self-efficacy. The report has revealed that
self-efficacy levels of novice teachers are significantly lower than experienced teachers
especially in 12 countries (Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Ireland, Iceland, Korea, Malta,
Slovak Republic, Norway, Poland and Turkey). It has also indicated that teacher selfefficacy is strongly correlated with such teacher level factors participation in
collaborative forms of professional development, appraisal and feedback on their work
(Cited in TALIS 2013: 36).
A great deal of research has been conducted on the perceptions and beliefs of
teacher self- efficacy with the aim of providing deeper insight into the field of teacher
education. Berg and Smith (2016: 8) note that in-service teachers with strong teacher
self-efficacy beliefs have been found to be more committed (Coladarci, 1992; Evans &
Trimble, 1986; Wolters & Daugherty, 2007); enthusiastic about teaching (Allinder, 1994;
Guskey 1984; Hall, Burley, Villeme, & Brockmeier, 1992; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010);
more likely to continue to work as a teacher (Burley, Hall, Villeme, & Brockmeier, 1991;
Glickman & Tamashiro, 1982); tenacious, resilient, and more understanding of less
successful students (Ashton & Webb, 1986); more likely to trial pioneering methods and
innovative ideas (Allinder, 1994; Berman, McLaughlin, Bass, Pauly, & Zellman, 1977;
Cousins & Walker, 2000; Ghaith & Yaghi, 1997; Guskey, 1988; Meijer & Foster, 1988;
Smylie, 1988; Wertheim & Leyser, 2002). They also highlight that those teachers tend to
use hands on teaching methods (Riggs & Enochs, 1990), to show evidence of more
effective organisation and planning (Allinder, 1994), and to be more satisfied with their
job (Klassen et al., 2009; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2014).
Hoy and Woolfolk
found that teachers’ sense of personal efficacy is higher
in schools where other teachers and administrators have high expectations for students,
and where they receive help from their principals in solving instructional and
management problems. Gavora (2010) conducted a research on teaching self-efficacy
and general teaching efficacy of pre-service teachers enrolled in five-year teacher
education programmes at a university in Slovakia, and found that they had positive
self-efficacy beliefs. Ghasemboland and Hashim (2013) analysed the efficacy beliefs of
non-native English speaking EFL teachers with respect to personal capabilities to teach
EFL, and their perceived English language proficiency in language centres in a middleeast country. Their findings indicated that the teachers’ perceived efficacy is positively
correlated with self-reported English proficiency. In a recent study, Sarfo et al. (2015)
explored the relationship between gender and self-efficacy beliefs in instructional
strategies, classroom management and student engagement among senior high school
teachers in Ghana, and reported that female teachers have stronger self-efficacy beliefs
than male teachers. As for Turkey, most of the related research seems to have focused
on self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service teachers rather than their in-service colleagues.
5zdemir
probed prospective primary school teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs
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regarding different variables, and found that their self-efficacy beliefs differ according
to sex, program, and speciality cited in Doğutaş,
. In a similar vein, Taşkın and
Hacıömerlioğlu
studied pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs considering
gender, and indicated that gender does not significantly influence their self-efficacy
perceptions. Analyzing self-efficacy beliefs of novice teachers and their performance in
the classroom, Özder (2011) concluded that they have a sufficient level of efficacy
beliefs, and they describe themselves highly successful in using instructional strategies
in class. In a recent survey, Merç (2015) investigated pre-service teachers’ perceived selfefficacy, and level of anxiety. He reported certain correlations among the components of
the anxiety and self-efficacy beliefs although gender and type of practicum school were
not predictors of anxiety and self-efficacy beliefs.
In a different study, Senemoğlu et al.
examined Turkish elementary school
teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs in relation to gender, experience and achievement level,
and they reported that gender and experience do not significantly influence their selfefficacy beliefs while their level of achievement does. Yüksel (2010) conducted a study
with the participation of Turkish EFL teachers working at state primary schools, and
found a significant correlation between high levels of self-efficacy and their perceived
language proficiency in English. Kozikoğlu
searched the self-efficacy perceptions
and professional commitment levels of teachers working at state primary schools, and
concluded that there is a positive correlation between teachers’ self-efficacy perceptions
and their professional commitment. Finally, Doğutaş
carried out a research with
a focus on self-efficacy beliefs of teacher candidates attending a state university in
Turkey on readiness to teaching profession, and reported that they have strong selfefficacy beliefs.
All in all, in order to bridge the research gap in Turkey, the present study
scrutinizes self-efficacy beliefs of teachers working at state primary schools regarding
such dimensions as instruction, adapting instruction to individual needs, motivating
students, and maintaining discipline. It specifically aims to reveal whether gender and
experience have a significant influence on their self-efficacy beliefs. Two research
questions were developed: (i) Do self-efficacy beliefs of Turkish primary school teachers
significantly differ regarding experience?, and (ii) do self-efficacy beliefs of Turkish
primary school teachers significantly differ regarding gender?
The following section outlines research design of the study providing
information about sampling, data collection instrument, and data analysis.
3. Method
3.1 Participants
100 teachers working at state primary schools in three provinces in Turkey who are
specialised in teaching various subjects (Turkish Language, Mathematics, Music, EFL,
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Reyhan Ağçam, Muzaffer Pınar Babanoğlu EXPLORING SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY
Social Sciences, Science, and Technology etc.) were the participants of the study. They
were selected through snowball sampling method, which is noted as allowing
researchers to look at the local patterns of relationships and to draw conclusions
(Golbeck, 2013:117), and equally divided into two groups as experienced and novice
teachers. Demographic information about the participants was also collected through
the forms administered to them (e.g. age, gender, experience and educational
qualification). Demographic features of the participants are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Sampling
Participants
Novice teachers (N. 50)
Experienced teachers (N. 50)
Age Range
23-37 ( x : 27,6)
30-60 ( x : 41,6)
Female
34
24
Male
16
26
1 to 5 years
7 to 37
( x : 3,5 years)
( x : 17,7 years)
BA
43
41
MA
7
8
PhD
---
1
Gender
Experience
Educational Level
As illustrated in Table 1, at the time of the study, novice teachers were aged between 23
and 37 years (mean age of 27.6) while their experienced colleagues were between 30 and
60 (mean age of 41.6). In addition, the former group had an average experience of 3.5
years, and the latter had a mean experience of 17.7 years. Lastly, a balanced distribution
was observed among the groups in terms of their level of education; namely, the
majority of the teachers in each group held BA degree when they participated in the
survey. Data collection instruments employed in this study and data analysis procedure
are introduced in the following section.
3.2 Data Collection Tool and Analysis
Norwegian Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010) which is a 24 fivepoint Likert Items was utilized as a data collection tool after translated into Turkish.
Items in the scale were pointed from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). This scale
is designed to measure six dimensions of teacher efficacy as:
Instruction
“dapting education to students’ individual needs
Motivating students
Cooperating with colleagues & parents
Keeping discipline
Coping with changes & challenges
NTSES was administered to the teachers in different settings. Those who were
working at schools in the town centre, for instance, were visited at school, and
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Reyhan Ağçam, Muzaffer Pınar Babanoğlu EXPLORING SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY
requested to fill the survey forms. Those who were working at schools in the country
were kindly asked to fill it out and to send it back via email to the researchers. Finally,
the teachers who were pursuing their M“ in educational sciences at Kahramanmaraş
S(tç( İmam University, Turkey were requested to complete it at the end of their courses
at the faculty. It is significant to note that no time limitation was set for completing the
scale. The data obtained from the scales were analysed through SPSS Version 17.0 in
order to see whether there are statistically significant differences between experienced
and novice teachers, and between male and female teachers with regard to their selfefficacy beliefs.
4. Results and Discussion
Findings of the study have suggested that most of the teachers display strong selfefficacy beliefs regardless of gender and experience, confirming the findings previously
reported by Senemoğlu et al.
, Gavora
, taşkın and Hacıömerlioğlu
,
Ozder (2011), Merç (2015), Sarfo et al. (2015). Nevertheless, some differences were
observed between male and female teachers as well as experienced and novice teachers
in this concern, as illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
5,00
4,50
4,00
3,50
3,00
2,50
2,00
1,50
1,00
0,50
0,00
Experienced
Novice
Instruction
Ind. needs Motivating ss Discipline
Cooperation
Coping
challenges
Figure 1: Teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs regarding experience
As can be seen in Figure 1, experienced teachers have stronger self-efficacy beliefs than
the novice teachers confirming Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) who found that
novice teachers have relatively weaker self-efficacy beliefs than the experienced
teachers, and contradicting Doğutaş
who concluded that novice teachers have
strong self-efficacy beliefs. More specifically, the groups in question significantly differ
in their responses to the following items.
Co-operate well with most parents. (Cooperation with parents)
Find adequate solutions to conflicts of interest with other teachers. (Coping with
challenges)
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Reyhan Ağçam, Muzaffer Pınar Babanoğlu EXPLORING SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY
Wake the desire to learn even among the lowest-achieving students. (Motivating
students)
(Instruction)
Answer students' questions so that they understand difficult problems.
Adapt instruction to the needs of low-ability students while you also attend to
the needs of other students in class. Students’ individual needs
Get all students to behave politely and respect the teachers. (Discipline)
Co-operate effectively and constructively with other teachers, for example, in
teaching teams. (Cooperation with colleagues)
5,00
4,50
4,00
3,50
3,00
2,50
2,00
1,50
1,00
0,50
0,00
Female
Male
Instruction
Ind. needs
Motivating ss
Discipline
Cooperation
Coping
challenges
Figure 2: Teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs regarding gender
Figure 2 displays that male teachers have stronger self-efficacy beliefs than female
teachers contradicting Sarfo et al. (2015) who reported that female teachers have better
instructional strategies efficacy than male teachers, and Özdemir (2013) who found
female prospective teachers have higher self-efficacy beliefs than male prospective
teachers. Teachers’ responses have demonstrated that male teachers feel much more
confident than their female colleagues with respect to maintaining classroom discipline;
namely, the number of male teachers who agree or strongly agree with the statement
that I can control even the most aggressive students is relatively higher than that of
female teachers.
In order to see whether the above-mentioned differences between the teachers
with regard to experience and gender, the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS,
Version 17.0) were used. The related results are presented in Table 2 and Table 3.
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Reyhan Ağçam, Muzaffer Pınar Babanoğlu EXPLORING SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY
Table 2: T-test results of teacher self-efficacy beliefs regarding experience
Instruction
Individual needs
Motivating students
Keeping discipline
Cooperation
Coping with challenges
Total
Experience
N
x
SS
Experienced
50
4.2680
0.69
Novice
50
4.2200
0.77
Experienced
50
4.3560
0.59
Novice
50
4.2720
0.68
Experienced
50
4.1650
0.71
Novice
50
4.0550
0.77
Experienced
50
4.3200
0.66
Novice
50
4.1750
0.77
Experienced
50
4.6000
0.73
Novice
50
4.0800
0.75
Experienced
50
4.2600
0.70
Novice
50
4.0800
0.77
Experienced
50
4.3042
0.66
Male
42
4.3115
0.70
Sd
t
p
98
0.26
.38
98
0.63
.28
98
0.64
.49
98
0.93
.43
98
2.06
.12
98
1.24
.23
98
.86
.33
Indeed, Table 2 includes the response to the first research question of the study which
aims to investigate whether self-efficacy beliefs of Turkish primary school teachers
significantly differ regarding length of professional experience. In general, no
statistically significant difference was found between the experienced and novice
teachers in terms of their self-efficacy beliefs. Yet, it has been revealed that the former
tend to higher level of self-efficacy than the latter particularly regarding the dimensions
of instruction, cooperation with other teachers at school and the students’ parents, and
coping with challenges.
Likewise, Table 3 provides an answer to the second research question posed in
the study with the purpose of seeing whether self-efficacy beliefs of Turkish primary
school teachers significantly differ regarding the variable of gender.
Table 3: T-test results of teacher self-efficacy beliefs regarding gender
Instruction
Individual needs
Motivating students
Keeping discipline
Cooperation
Coping with challenges
Total
Gender
N
x
SS
Female
58
4.2275
0.71
Male
42
4.2666
0.75
Female
58
4.3034
0.64
Male
42
4.3285
0.64
Female
58
3.9871
0.73
Male
42
4.3285
0.73
Female
58
4.1422
0.75
Male
42
4.3929
0.65
Female
58
4.3103
0.82
Male
42
4.3651
0.65
Female
58
4.1206
0.73
Male
42
4.2381
0.75
Female
58
4.1861
0.72
Male
42
4.3115
0.70
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 11 │ 2016
Sd
t
p
98
0.21
.38
98
0.88
.34
98
1.98
.28
98
1.68
.19
98
.33
.57
98
.70
.47
98
.82
.32
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Reyhan Ağçam, Muzaffer Pınar Babanoğlu EXPLORING SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY
Considering statistical findings illustrated in Table 3, female and male teachers do not
significantly differ in their self-efficacy beliefs. However, the female teachers seem to
have lower self-efficacy beliefs than their male colleagues with respect to motivating
students, keeping discipline in classroom, and coping with challenges. Practical
implications of the study will be discussed in the light of related findings in the
following section. Subsequently, limitations of the study and a couple of suggestions for
further directions will be presented.
5. Conclusion
In accordance with the findings of the present study, one might conclude that the
teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, especially those on the dimensions of instruction,
cooperation with others and coping with challenges, seem to be improved through
gaining professional experience. Similarly, male teachers seem to be more self-confident
in motivating students, keeping discipline in classroom, and coping with challenges as
opposed to their female colleagues, which might be contributed to the patriarchal
structure of the Turkish society in general, or that females are perceived less
authoritarian due to the fact that they look physically weaker than their male
colleagues. However, we could never know which group could really achieve these
without observing them for an appropriate period of time or eliciting opinions of the
groups of students they are working with about it. So, the results reported here cannot
be generalized to other settings, and more data are needed to come up with more
concrete results related to teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and their teaching practices.
Nevertheless, taking into consideration the finding that novice teachers tend to
have weaker self-efficacy beliefs than experienced teachers, it might be suggested that
certain precautions should be taken in undergraduate teacher training programmes so
that pre-service teachers/ teacher candidates develop positive self-efficacy beliefs and
easily adopt their future profession. In this sense, Özdemir (2008) recommends that
various activities and practices that will enable them to appreciate the teaching
profession should be included in teacher education programmes. He also suggests that
such activities as seminars and tutorials should be held for the teachers in order to help
them overcome the problems they are faced in their professional life. Additionally, as
suggested by Özder (2011), the internship durations and contents should be revised in
order for teacher candidates to benefit from experienced teachers, and to improve the
skills related to ensuring student engagement in class .
In a similar vein, Sarfo et al. (2015) recommend that teacher training institutions
should emphasize the teaching of instructional practices, student engagement and
classroom management practices to the teacher trainees so as to improve their selfefficacy beliefs. In TALIS (2014: 25), teachers are suggested to be open to working
together with colleagues and school leaders, to take the initiative to create them if
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Reyhan Ağçam, Muzaffer Pınar Babanoğlu EXPLORING SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY
formal collaborative activities aren’t already established, to consider team teaching as a
way of approaching classroom management, particularly when there are large numbers
of students with behavioural problems in class, and to take advantage of professional
development opportunities, especially if they are provided in the school and involve
colleagues. Alternatively, in the report, school administrators are suggested to help
teachers keep their teaching methods up-to-date, and to develop more collaboration
among teachers in their schools in order to encourage them to learn from one another
(p. 11). They might also be suggested to provide novice teachers with more help in
solving institutional and management problems, and to encourage cooperation between
novice and experienced teachers. Finally, considering that teacher self-efficacy is
correlated with the amount of stress experienced in teaching (Smylie, 1988), it might be
suggested for school administrators to create a stress-free atmosphere at their
institution as much as possible.
This study is limited to analysing data obtained from teachers working at state
primary schools located in a few cities in Turkey (N. 60); so, a larger number of teachers
working at institutions offering different levels of education might be included in a
further study. In addition, it might be extended to compare self-efficacy beliefs of
teachers working state schools and those who work at private schools. It is also limited
in instrumentation; namely, data were collected through only one scale. Hence, in a
further study, teachers’ perceptions might be analysed using other types of instruments
such as interview and observation. Finally, it is limited to the comparison of selfefficacy beliefs of teachers in terms of experience and gender. Thus, it might be
furthered to compare the perceptions of teachers regarding different aspects such as
educational status, or more specifically, a further study might be carried out with the
purpose of revealing factors that cause novice teachers to develop weaker self-efficacy
beliefs in comparison to their experienced colleagues.
Acknowledgements
The researchers would like to thank to the participant teachers for their invaluable
contributions.
About the Authors
Reyhan Ağçam received her MA and PhD in ELT from Çukurova University, Turkey.
She currently works as an assistant professor at Faculty of Education, Kahramanmaraş
S(tç( İmam University, Turkey. Her research interests include language teaching,
second language acquisition, academic writing and corpus linguistics.
Muzaffer Pınar Babanoğlu received her MA and PhD in ELT from Çukurova
University, Turkey. She currently works as an assistant professor at Faculty of Arts and
European Journal of Education Studies - Volume 2 │ Issue 11 │ 2016
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Reyhan Ağçam, Muzaffer Pınar Babanoğlu EXPLORING SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY
Sciences, Kahramanmaraş S(tç( İmam University, Turkey. Her research interests
include second language acquisition, learner corpus, English as a foreign language.
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Reyhan Ağçam, Muzaffer Pınar Babanoğlu EXPLORING SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TURKEY
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