European Journal of Education Studies
ISSN: 2501 - 1111
ISSN-L: 2501 - 1111
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu
Volume 3 │ Issue 2 │ 2017
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.248668
ASSESSMENT PRACTICES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN
KILIMANJARO REGION, TANZANIA;
A GAP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE
Victorini Salemai
PhD, Mwenge Catholic University
P.O. BOX 1226, Moshi, Tanzania
Abstract:
Assessment as a process of determining the extent to which teaching and learning
objectives have been achieved, is popular and used by teachers at different levels.
However, the adoption of new approaches in teaching and learning such as learner
centered approach based on social constructivism, possess a big challenge to teachers to
align assessment practices with the theory. Many teachers belief that assessment is
solely dictated by the teacher and the learner has nothing contribute in the process of
setting and the administration of assessments. The theory of constructivism emphasizes
on the role of learner in both learning and assessment procedures and the need for
authentic assessment which incorporates diversity of objectives from both cognitive
psychomotor and affective domains. This study focused on the assessment practices in
secondary schools in Kilimanjaro and to determine how they align with the learner
centered approaches. This study also assessed the attitudes of teachers and students
and challenges encountered in assessment practices. The researcher adopted mixed
research methods for data collection and analysis. This study sampled 580 students, 115
teachers, 6 heads of secondary schools, one education inspectors and one National
Examination Council of Tanzania (NECTA) official. Data collection instruments were
questionnaires, in-depth interview guides and document analysis guide. The findings
indicated that there was a gap between theory and practice in assessment. A good
number of teachers use teacher centered approach in both teaching and assessment
procedures. It was also found that teachers and students had negative attitude towards
the assessment procedures of learner centered approach, with several challenges. The
researcher recommends the need for in- service training to empower teachers on how to
i
Correspondence: email victorini_salema@yahoo.com
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved.
© 2015 – 2017 Open Access Publishing Group
130
Victorini Salema
ASSESSMENT PRACTICES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN KILIMANJARO REGION, TANZANIA;
A GAP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE
set authentic assessment tests and exams which are more realistic in assessing students
in secondary schools in Tanzania.
Keywords: assessment, learner centeredness, theory, tests, exams
1. Introduction
1.1 Overview of Curriculum of Secondary Schools in Tanzania
A comprehensive review of the curriculum from pre-primary to teacher education was
effected in Tanzania officially in 2009 due to many number of reasons in Tanzania.
According to Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) (2013), the review of Ordinary
Secondary Education curriculum has been made inevitable to meet the requirements of
Education and Training Policy (1995), Tanzania Development Vision 2025, National
Science and Technology Policy, Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP) and
Secondary Education Development Programme, National Strategy for Growth and
Reduction of Poverty (2004), recommendations from educational researches such as the
research report on Secondary Education curriculum review prepared by TIE (2004).
Also, the research findings and recommendations from the stakeholders necessitated
the review of 1997 Secondary Education curriculum.
According to TIE (2013), the provision of any education programme reflects the
existing local, regional and international situations. This indicates situations that can be
contextually scanned from social and economic environment in which the intended
education is supposed to take place. It is, therefore, imperative for a developing country
like Tanzania to have a curriculum which embraces quality education as vital and
inevitable for accelerating its socio-economic development.
1.2 Assessment of achievement in the reviewed curriculum
The Secondary Education curriculum shall provide information essential for assessing
students’ competencies and must cover a range of dimensions of student learning
including mastery of content, cognitive development, social and psychological
development and changes in terms of humanistic spiritual values (TIE, 2013). The main
purpose shall be to guide and improve the process of teaching and learning. Effectively
planned assessment can promote learning, build confidence and develop students
understanding of themselves as learners. According to TIE (2013), there shall be two
main components of assessment; Continuous Assessment and Final Examination.
Continuous assessment shall be of a formative in nature. It shall have diagnostic
value in helping the learner develop a realistic self-image and inform the teacher on
how the teaching and learning process can be developed (TIE, 2013).
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A GAP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE
Continuous assessment shall determine the progress of the learner and monitor
the learning process occur throughout the four years cycle. The assessment tools which
shall be used are assignments, tests, projects and terminal examinations. The scores for
continuous assessments shall constitute a part of the final assessment of the student.
Terminal test scores and project scores shall be sent to NECTA as CA of the student.
1.3 Examination Structure
The examination shall have questions which measure all levels of the learning domains.
Each examination paper shall consist of not less than three sections in which section one
shall test all levels of domains but the main focus shall be on cognitive domain, while
sections two and three shall focus more on the affective and psychomotor domains (TIE,
2013).
Also, science and technology subjects shall be examined in two papers which are
theory and practical whereby each paper shall carry a weight of 50% of the total marks
of the respective final examination for the subject. Language subjects shall be examined
in both written and oral.
1.4 Assessment Methods
According to TIE (2013), assessment methods for the Secondary Education Curriculum
shall emphasize the competence based teaching and learning. These methods shall
probe students’ understanding, reasoning and critical thinking rather than their ability
to return memorized facts. The methods shall include, portfolios, rating scales and
rubrics, checklists, oral presentations, project work, practical tasks to demonstrate
performance skills, written essays or reports, and analysis (for example of texts).
2. Statement of the Problem
Despite the good statements in the curriculum about assessment practices, the real
implementation may be a challenge and unrealistic if not taken with care. ADEA (2012)
in their study about learner centered approaches in Tanzania argued that NECTA rarely
evaluated what was going on in the classrooms before setting the examinations, and it
was difficult to match examinations with what students had learnt and how they had
learnt it. Examinations ought to test what students have done and learnt in school and
how they learned it using learner centred approaches. This claim needs a wide
consideration to determine whether or not assessment procedures in secondary schools
are aligned with the policy of assessment stipulated by the curriculum and Tanzania
Institute of Education (TIE).
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A GAP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE
2.1 Theoretical Framework
The theory of social constructivist is informed by the work of Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
(Salema, 2014). It is essentially a theory about how people socially construct knowledge.
Vygotsky believed that learning could not be separated from social context. He argued
that all cognitive functions begin as a product of social interactions and that learning
was not simply assimilated but by a collaborative process (Drew, 2012). He viewed
school as a perfect place to begin cultivating social interaction and learning through
modeling appropriate social and academic skills (Salema, 2014).
2.2 Research Questions
1. To what extent assessment procedures are aligned with the learner centered
approaches in Kilimanjaro region?
2. What is the attitude of teachers and students on assessment procedures related to
learner centered methods?
3. What are the challenges encountered implementing assessment procedures
aligned to learner centered pedagogy.
3. Methodology
3.1 Design
Mixed research method was applied in this study. Specifically this study used
Triangulation Design. Triangulation design is a one-phase design in which researchers
implement the quantitative and qualitative approaches. The purpose of this design was
to obtain different but complementary data on the same research to best understand the
research problem. Mixed research method is flexible in collecting data from diverse
situations (Cresswell, 2007).
3.2 Target Population and Sample
This study was targeting heads of schools, teachers, inspectors, NECTA officials and
students in secondary schools in Kilimanjaro region. The respondents were sampled
from three districts in Kilimanjaro region. The sample comprised six heads of secondary
schools selected by purposive sampling technique, 115 teachers selected by stratified
sampling, 580 students sampled by stratified sampling and one educational inspector
and one NECTA official was selected purposively.
3.3 Research Instruments
This study used questionnaires for teachers and students, interview guides for heads of
schools and education inspector and NECTA official. Observation guides and
document analysis guides were also used as instruments for data collection.
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ASSESSMENT PRACTICES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN KILIMANJARO REGION, TANZANIA;
A GAP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE
3.4 Validity and Reliability / Trustworthiness
Validity of the instruments was determined by research experts and reliability of the
questionnaire was tested by Cronbach Alpha technique. Cronbach Alpha of 0.79 and
O.
were obtained from teachers’ and students’ questionnaires respectively. The
questionnaires were reliable because according to Kerlinger (2000) a value of Cronbach
Alpha 0.7 is considered to be a cut off for acceptable and unacceptable reliability.
Trustworthiness of the qualitative data was ensured by triangulation, member checking
and prolonged engagement in the data collection and analysis.
3.5 Data Analysis Procedures
Descriptive and inferential statistics were used for quantitative analysis of data.
Summary of data was presented in frequencies, percentages and means. Hypotheses
were tested at 0.05 significance for T-test of independence and one way ANOVA.
Qualitative data was analyzed by transcription of data from the interviews and
observations. Coding of data was done accordingly and themes, categories developed
and interpretation was done according to the context.
4. Findings and Discussions
4.1 Extent to which Assessment Procedures are Aligned with the Learner Centered
Approaches In Kilimanjaro Region
The aim of this research was to determine the extent to which the assessment
procedures match with the requirements of learner centered approach and in relation to
the new syllabus. Specifically the researcher was interested in the relationship between
assessment and the syllabus, assessment strategies and assessment domains for both
internal and external assessments.
4.1.1 Relationship between Assessment and Syllabus
Learner centered pedagogy demands that in assessing students, the teachers or an
examination board should consider both content and construct validity. It should cover
the three domains of objectives namely cognitive domain, psychomotor domain and
affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia, 1973) and substantial coverage of the
syllabus. Previously, most of the exams focused on cognitive domain and particularly
on lower order skills of recalling knowledge. As to whether or not the national exams
were related to syllabus objectives the findings indicated that majority of the teachers
61% said that national exams were related to the objectives in the syllabus. Only 39 %
considered national exams not to be focused on the set objectives in the syllabus. When
one head of private secondary school was asked about the national exams, he had this
to say: What, I can say, as from last year the exams were set according to the new
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syllabus. But the problem is, the new syllabus was not used in time in most of the
schools, and that might have affected the performance of the students in the recently
announced results. There is an indication that to a great extent the national exams are
set according to the set objectives in the syllabus.
4.1.2 Coverage of Assessment Domains
The researcher was also interested in analyzing the examination papers to assess
whether or not they demonstrate cognitive domains, psychomotor domains and
affective domains. Document analysis of selected biology form four national exams
were sampled from 2011 to 2013.
The findings indicate that most of the questions asked in biology national
examinations were mainly testing knowledge, comprehension and very few questions
on application and analysis. In 2011 biology exam, the big percentage of the questions
66% was assessing knowledge while in 2012 the questions on knowledge were 61%. In
2013, the number of questions on knowledge went up to 67%, while application and
analysis comprised 3% each. Again, the national exams did not demonstrate the
assessment of affective domains, though there were little of psychomotor assessments
in practical examinations. There was an indication that the procedures on how to
prepare the national exams were not focused on learner centered assessment.
Analysis of internal exams also indicated that most of the questions were
simplistically set to assess a portion of learned content but the questions were mostly
testing knowledge and comprehension of concepts. This could be a serious challenge
because if students were not used to the new standards of doing assessments based on
learner centered approach, it might be difficult to know whether or not students could
address critical questions of higher levels. Unfortunately, there was no clear policy with
NECTA as to whether or not the continuous assessment scores were used during the
final grading of students in their national exams. When the NECTA official was asked
about this concern, he said:
Sometimes we use them but as you know they are very unreliable since those scores do
not depict the reality. In most cases, they are manipulated to give a good image of the
students but they are never reliable. If we are to use them, then we have to standardize
them.
4.1.3 Assessment Strategies Based on LCP
Learner centred approach values specific assessment methods or strategies. Both
students and teachers were provided with assessment methods/strategies to which they
were to respond the extent to which they are being used by choosing either: Very often
(5), Often (4), Sometimes (3), Rarely (2) or Never (1). These strategies included: Diaries,
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Portfolios; Peer assessment; Learning contracts and negotiated assessment; Projects;
Group work and Performance assessment to assess particular skills.
The findings indicated that majority of teachers 64% confirmed that assessment
based on diaries was rarely used or not used at all. The findings from the students data
indicated that the majority of them, 72% confirmed that diaries were rarely used or
never used at all.
According to Pearson (1994) in diaries, students are asked to write about their
learning experiences and provide feedback on their experiences. Among the benefits of
keeping a diary, it gives students the opportunity to become more involved in their
own learning process and can focus their entries in specific ways. Diaries are important
but majority of the students in secondary schools in Kilimanjaro region were missing
this important learning and assessment tool.
Again, the findings indicated that good number of the teachers 44% use
portfolios sometimes, rarely or never at all. When compared to students, the researcher
observed similar trends of the responses. Majority of the students, 61% never used
portfolios as part of assessment. This is an indication that portfolios are not commonly
used as assessment tools in secondary schools in Kilimanjaro. During the observation
and interaction with students, no students were seen to have either portfolios or diaries.
Students were busy copying notes in their exercise books. According to Montgomery
(2001), portfolios are often described as a more authentic means of assessment than the
traditional classroom test. Rather than showing that the learner knows what has been
taught, the portfolio demonstrates that the student can do what has been taught. This
important assessment tool was rarely used in secondary schools in Kilimanjaro region
and students miss its benefits.
Another aspect of LCP assessment method is peer assessment. Van Den Berg,
Admiraal, and Pilot (2006) defined peer assessment as a process in which students
assess the quality of their fellow students’ work and provide each other with feedback.
This helps to reduce teachers’ biases about certain students and a way of empowering
students in assessing their peers. The findings indicated that good number of the
teachers (51%) rarely use his method. Data from Students indicated that majority of
them 56% have never applied peer assessment in their learning process. According to
Heywood (2000), student assessment of other students' work, both formative and
summative, has many potential benefits to learning for the assessor and the assesse. It
encourages student autonomy and higher order thinking skills. This important method
is also rarely used in secondary schools in Kilimanjaro region.
Learning contracts and negotiated assessment is considered as one of the
strategies in enhancing learner centred pedagogy. From the teachers’ responses, the
majority of the them 51% thought that learning contracts are used sometimes, or rarely
or not used at all. Majority of the students 63% concur with what the teachers affirmed
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that contracts were rarely or never used in the process of assessment. During the
interview with one biology teacher after a class observation, the researcher inquired
about peer assessment and assessment contracts. Some of teachers were not in support
of it and considered it to be a total insubordination of a teacher who is to determine the
assessment procedures. According to Orego (2007), using a learning contract in
education encourages the student to take an active role in all stages of their learning. It
provides the student with the flexibility of individualizing their learning by establishing
meaningful goals which reflect their own strengths and weaknesses.
Again, teachers were required to indicate the extent to which they use projects as
assessment tools. The findings indicate that, majority of the teachers (56%) use projects
as a part of assessment. The same question was asked to students and the findings
indicated that 22% said never, 23% said rarely, and 26% said sometimes. García and
Pearson (1994) considered projects important since they increase students' ability to
access information, organize ideas and share information with others, to provide
opportunities for students to read a variety of reference materials and resources, to
involve students in setting learning goals and in determining the scope of units of
study. Therefore, teachers should be encouraged to use projects as a part of assessment
of students.
Another method of assessing students is through assigning marks to the work
they do in groups. Learner centered approach requires students to work and interact in
groups during the teaching and learning processes. The teacher is supposed to assess
students based on the various activities assigned to them in groups. The findings
indicated that 81% of the teachers have used the method often or very often while 53%
of the students confirmed that assessing group work was done often. During the
observations in class the researcher witnessed some of the group work activities
which are latter awarded marks as a part of continuous assessment. However, lack of a
follow up by the teachers makes lazy students not to take it seriously or dodging the
work and pro-active students find themselves doing the bigger portion of the work.
Generally, it can be considered that both internal and external exams have
challenges not only on the part of the students but also the teachers who do not know
what will happen in the final performance of their students as the examinations remain
very unpredictable. When the zonal education inspector was asked, what might have
contributed the poor performance at national form level had this to say: The bad results
might have been contributed by many factors… Mixing of curriculum and politics have
led to many failures. The findings align with what Tilya and Mafumiko (2010) found on
the compatibility between teaching methods and competence-based curriculum in
Tanzania. According to them, examinations designed by teachers and implemented in
Tanzania do not reflect real life situations that demand more complex skills than
memorization. Tanzania examinations demand a great deal of rote learning, and very
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A GAP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE
few higher order cognitive skills. Similar studies done by Haki Elimu (2012) and World
bank (2008) confirmed the same. In fact, there is a lot to be desired if learner centered
approaches are to be realized in assessment. That means that there is a gap between
theories and the real practice in secondary schools.
4.2 Attitude of Teachers and Students toward Learner Centered Assessment
Theory of Reasoned Action suggests that a person's behavior is determined by his/her
intention to perform the behavior and that this intention is, in turn, a function of his/her
attitude toward the behavior and his/her subjective norm. The best predictor of
behavior is intention. Intention is the cognitive representation of a person's readiness to
perform a given behavior, and it is considered to be the immediate antecedent of
behavior (Ajzen, 1991). The researcher assumes that positive attitude towards the
learner centred assessment may be a good ground for its implementation while the
opposite is also true. The researcher used Likert scale questions to determine the
attitude of teachers and students on Leaner Centred Assessments. The question had 15
sorted items and the respondents were to respond either by choosing strongly agree (5),
agree (4), neutral (3) disagree and strongly disagree (1). All negative statements
received reverse coding.
The findings indicated that both students and teachers were negative about
assessment procedures used in their schools to reflect learner centeredness. The general
composite mean score of the statements was 2.4 and 1.9 for teachers and students
respectively. The negativity about the use of learner centered assessment is based on its
low rate of application and unfamiliar with the leaner centered assessment procedures.
4.3 Hypotheses Testing
A hypothesis was also tested to determine whether or not there was a significant
differences between teachers and students on their attitude towards learner centered
assessments. An independent sample T- test was used and found that T (645=-4.96,
P=00) there was statistically significant differences between teachers and students on
rating the use of leaner centered assessment procedures.
One way ANOVA was also used to determine if there was a statistical
significance differences on attitude mean score of teachers from different areas of
specialization. The findings (ANOVA (F,102)= 3.43, p=0.07) indicated that there was no
significant differences between their attitude based on their area of specialization.
5. Challenges of Implementing Learner Centered Assessment
The respondents were asked to indicate the challenges in applying learner centered
assessment. The findings indicated that 85% of the teachers and 79% of the students
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A GAP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE
considered lack of skills to set learner centered questions to be a big challenge. Most of
the teachers who had passed through colleges before the new curriculum might find it
challenging to prepare learner centered assessment.
Majority of the teachers 89% and 97% of the students considered big classes to be
a challenge to the use and assessment of the students. Moreover, 78% of the teachers
and 67% of the students thought that lack of interest is a problem to the implementation
of learner centered assessment.
Majority of the teachers 70% were of the opinion that mindset is a problem that
there were traditional teachers who thought that the old style was the best. Interview
with one head of school said, …there are teachers who want to maintain status quo, and
they will never change even if they are given training .
Moreover, lack of enough resources was considered as one of the challenges.
Majority of the teachers 76% and 87 % of the students considered lack of resources as a
hindrance to the implementation of learner centered assessment. Their implementation
of learning centered assessment is still wanting because of the challenges encountered.
6. Recommendations
This study recommends:
Schools and the Ministry of Education need to organize in-service training or
other capacity building programmes for teachers on leaner centered assessments.
Teacher training colleges have to ensure that teacher’s trainees are well trained to
how to apply learner centered assessment.
Teachers should change their mind set and be open to embrace new approaches
in assessment procedures.
Educational inspectors need to ensure learner centred assessment procedures are
implemented in schools.
NECTA should also align exams according to the new assessment procedures.
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