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After the death of King Dusan which resulted with the fall of Raska, the economically advanced cities in Kosova: Novobërda, Trepça, Prishtina, Prizreni, Peja etc., remained partially under the Slavic reign of Stefan Lazar and Gjergj Brankoviq, whereas the western cities remained under the reign of Albanian aristocratic families such as Balshaj and Dukagjini. After the successful campaigns of Ottomans in 1427-1428 and 1441, the territory of Kosova was conquered by the Ottomans. The successful Hungarian and Polish campaigns against the Ottomans in the Battle of Nish in 1443, managed to overthrow the Ottomans from the Balkans. However, after the Battle of Varna in November of 1444, the Ottomans regained reign on the territory of Kosova. Seeing that Gjergj Brankoviq resurfaced as an Ottoman ally during this time, the Ottomans acknowledged him the right to reign over a large part of the Kosovar territory, as a vassal. After the fall of Constantinople on the 19th of May 1453, Sultan Mehmet II in the spring of 1455 initiated a strong military operation, and managed to ultimately include a large part of the Balkans, including Kosova, under the Ottoman reign. In 1455, the Ottomans conquered: Novobërda, Trepça, Prishtina, Janjeva, Vuçitërna and Lipjan. After the conquest of Novobërda, Bellasica and Klina were conquered as well. Prizren was initially conquered in 1455, but thereafter an insurgency against the Turkish conquest erupted and as a result the Ottomans only managed to ultimately conquer it in 1459. The Turkish conquest of Peja as well as a large part of Dukagjini Plain occurred in 1462. After these events, Kosova fell under the Turkish reign which lasted until 1912.
In this paper work, without going into details, because the topic itself includes a long period, first we will introduce a short observation about Kosova’s sociopolitical situation, geo-political position, territorial and ethnographic expansion before the Ottoman Period. In the second part of this paper work, in fragmentary manner we will speak about Kosova territory under medieval, Bulgarian and Serbian rule. In the third part, about Kosova battle between myth-legend and reality, which based on all possibilities it did not occur at all, apart from one conspiratorial plot and an armed conflict for authority governance that happened between two opposed sides, and about the versions of Sultan Murat - the first assassination which was never brought to light, not even the assassins fate - based on archival documents. In the last fourth part, we will briefly offer the data from early Ottoman recordings about the settlement of domination and Ottoman administration and the formation of many Sancaks in the vast territory of Kosova, wider than it is today. The Kosova territory during XV-XVI centuries, was a part of ‘vilayets’ and “Sancaks’ which were created by Ottoman administration; Vilcitern, Prizren, Scupi-Uskup, Dukagjin and Shkodra. At the end of XIXth century, during 1868-1878, first it was a part of vilayet of Prizren, and after that during 1878-1912 all its territory was included in vilayet of Kosova (with its headquarters in Prishtina, and from 1888 in Scupi-Uskup) as an administrative, juridical and territorial unit was the largest vilayet belonging to the Ottoman Empire which possessed a geographical surface area of 52000 km2 . In Kosova Vilayeti there were six Sancaks: Prishtina, Scupi-Uskup, Prizren, Peja-Ipek, Yeni Pazar and Taslica (Pljevla) Sancak, inhabited mostly by Muslim populations: Albanians, Turks, Bosnians, and minorities like Vlachs, Bulgarians, Serbians and etc. But, after the years 1912-13 Serbia, with the help of some European countries and Russia, managed to conquer the territory of this vilayet which they fragmented thus creating some ‘banovina” (Serbian administrative units) and started to take administrative measures in order to change their ethnic structures and for the purpose of resettling the majority of the Muslim population in Turkey. This resettlement continued until the Second World War after the year 1945 where some parts of Kosova Vilayet, inhabited mostly by Albanians, were given, without any ethnic and demographic rights, to the Republic of Macedonia and the Republic of Montenegro, whereas the largest part of Kosova filled with mines of precious metals was kept by Serbia under her occupation until 1970. Kosova never was part of Serbia grounded on international justice. The evidence for this period was intentionally taken from the scientific works of Academy of Sciences of Soviet Union “The History of Yugoslavia”, published in Masco, 1963 in two volumes and from the works “The History of Diplomacy”, published also by Russian Academy in 1945 in Masco in three volumes, witnesses the same thing and it is completely made clear that Serbia never had international legitimacy over Kosova. Therefore Serbian reliance on the facts of international justice is totally unfounded, it is falsification of historical facts, but official Russian politics, never mentioned this political problem. In 1972, under Tito’s directives and based on the new Constitution of Yugoslav Federative Assembly, Kosova gains the full status of autonomy and at the same time becomes a federal unit of Federal Yugoslavia - having the same rights on votes as Vojvodina and six other Republics. Twenty years after, former Yugoslavia began breaking apart and the in fight for breaking off, of this artificial, multilingual and multinational state, Kosova again was invaded by Serbia and lost its autonomy during 1989-1999 in a campaign which used terror, violence and terrible genocide towards civil Albanian populations and aimed to make ethnic cleansing and changing the ethnic structure – in this they succeeded in deporting of one million Albanian residents from Kosova with the help of police, military and paramilitary forces. With the great military help of the USA, the European Union, Turkey and the attack of organized forces of KLA ( Kosova Liberation Army) coordinated with the NATO aerial Forces, after 78 days of bombardment from Serbian military bases, succeeded in liberating Kosova from the terror and genocide of the Serbian state completely by June 21st of 1999.
2014 •
The aim of our research partnership was to outline the history of the area called Kosovo today, and to analyse its characteristics from the age of the Roman Empire up to now. This study is to introduce the results of the second phase of the research. 19 J. R. LAMPE, Yugoslavia as a History. Twice there was a Country, Cambridge 1996, pp. 89–92. 20 Ibidem, pp. 94–96. 21 J. JUHÁSZ, Volt egyszer egy Jugoszlávia, Budapest 1999, p 13. László Gulyás, Gábor Csüllög Ottoman Kosovo (1458–1913) 60 In June 1458 the troops of the Ottoman Empire occupied the castle of Smederevo, the last Serbian-ruled area, and thus the Medieval state of the Serbs ceased to exist. Serbia – includig Kosovo – was under Turkish rule for almost 500 years, until as late as 1913. The 454 years of the history of Ottoman Kosovo can be divided into three shorter periods. 1. The period of relatively peaceful coexistence (1458–1683). 2. The period of srtict Turkish control (1686–1804). 3. The period of permanent conflicts (...
in Ottoman Legacies in the Contemporary Mediterranean The Balkans and the Middle East Compared Edited by Eyal Ginio, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Karl Kaser, University of Graz
2012 •
The age of 60’s and 70’s of the 14th century was crucial for the Turkish expansion into the Balkans. Slowly but persistently the Ottomans from their initial base in the Gallipoli peninsula had been conquering Byzantine Thrace. At the same time they directed their incursions also towards the neighboring Bulgarian and Serbian territories. A certain role for the success of their conquests played the death of the Serbian Tsar Stefan Dušan (1331-1355) on 20 December 1355. That led to the dissolution of his vast Balkan empire and the outbreak of civil strife between the pretenders for the emperor’s crown in Byzantium – John V Palaiologos (1341-1391) and the family of Cantacuzenes (John VI and his eldest son Mathew). The main battlefield between the pretenders was contemporary European territory of Turkey and the nearby Rhodope Mountains. The efforts of the Byzantine Emperor John V for receiving of Western aid against the invaders in the late 50’s of the century did not match a result – the only act of some significance, which was performed, was the attack by the fleet of the Holy League, led by the papal legate Fr. Peter Thomas, on the held by the Ottomans town of Lampsakos in Northwestern Asia Minor and her capture in 1359.
Reconfiguring the fifteenth-century crusade (ed. by Norman Housley), Palgrave Macmillan
Hunyadi’s campaign of 1448 and the second battle of Kosovo polje (17-20 october)2017 •
The crusade of 1448, the last military offensive led by John Hunyadi to save Constantinople from Ottoman encirclement, has been neglected both by students of international relations in the fifteenth century and by specialists in crusading. This chapter pieces together the complex diplomatic context which occasioned the reopening of hostilities between Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, the military preparations and the campaign. Kosovo Polje holds a special place in European military history for several reasons: the high number of combatants fighting for four days; the massive use made of firearms and artillery; and the diversity of the troops whose tactical deployment revealed a synthesis of western and eastern military methods. The battle sealed the fate of Byzantium, which was conquered by Mehmed II in 1453.
XV ve XVI. YÜZYILLARDA ERKEN OSMANLI IDARESINDEKI KOSOVA OZET: Kosova, Antik asirlardan Orta cagina kadar ceogradafi birimi bakimindan Dardania olarak adlandirilmaktadir. Dardania Krallığı 4-1. yüzyıllarında kendi devletine, idari sistemine askeri kuvvetlerine ve para birimine sahipti. Bu tarihten sonra, M.Ö. 168 yılında Dardania Roma İmperatorluğu'ndan işgal edilir. M.S. 395 yılında Roma İmperatorluğu ikiye bölünür. Dardania, Doğu Roma'nın hakimiyetine girer. Orta çağda, 850 - 1018 yıllar arasında Kosova, Bulgar Krallığı tarafından hükm edilir. 150 yıllık Bulgar hakimiyetinden sonra, Bizans Imperlatorlugu, 13. yüzyılın ortasina kadar Kosova üzerinde tekrar kendi hakimiyetini kurdu. 13. yüzyılın yarisinda Kosova Rashka (Raşka) Devletinden (Ortaçağ Sırbistan) işgal edilir ve 1389 yılına kadar onun hakimiyetinde kalır. 1389 Kosova Muharebesinden sonra 1454/55 yılında kadar paralel iki hakimiyetin olmasına rağmen Kosova Osmanlı Devleti'nin vasalı olur. Kosova, 1455 yılından 1912 yılına kadar Omanlı İmperatorluğu'ndan idare edilir. Osmanlı İdaresinde kendi nahiyeleriyle Vulçiterin (Vushtrri), Prizren, Üsküp (Shkup), Kalkandelen, Priştine (Prishtine) ve Dukagin sancakları oluşturulur. Kosova'da Osmanlı İdaresinin yerleşmesiyle, Orataçağ Sırb hakimiyeti boyunca pravoslav-ortodoks dinine zorla dönüştürülen Arnavutlar üzerinde islavlaşma süreci kademeli olarak sonlandırıldı. Arnavut halkı, Osmanlı toplumuna ve idari tımar sistemine entegre olmaya başlamasıyla, ekonomik ve kültürel müesseselerinin genel gelişimlerine ve cami, medrese, hamam, köprü, kale gibi laik ve dini nitelikli birçok eserin inşaasına katkıda bulunarak İslam dinini benimsemeye devam eder. Osmanlı Hakimiyeti'nin esnasinda, Batı Balkanlarda devamli Osmanlı idaresini İmperatorluğ'un memuru olarak Türk, Arnavutlar, Boşnyaklar ve digerliri, beraber yönetmişlerdir. Bu konu devamında daha ayrıntılı bir şekilde değerlendirip açıklanacak. Anahtar kelimeler: Kosova topraklari, Osmanli idaresi, sancaklar teskilati, timar sistemi, Arnavut halki’nin islamlastirmasi.
Ottoman domination of southeastern Europe, often referred to as the Balkans, began in the fourteenth century. Initial Ottoman rule provided relative peace and stability for the region for the next three centuries. This was the pax ottomanica, or the Ottoman Peace. The long Ottoman decline began after the Ottoman defeat outside the city of Vienna in 1683. Throughout the eighteenth century, Ottoman control of southeastern Europe receded. This permitted the intrusion of Enlightenment ideas from Western Europe at the end of the eighteenth century. The concept of nationalism, imported from Western Europe, in particular caused desires for political change throughout the Balkans. Its influence would provide the main basis for conflict in southeastern Europe, lasting throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. At first the self identified nationalities of the Balkans, first the Serbs, then the Greeks, Romanians, Bulgarians, and finally the Albanians all sought to obtain national states, mainly at the expense of Ottoman rule.
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rec. a "Non si farà mai più tal viaggio. Pigafetta e la prima navigazione attorno al mondo", a cura di Valeria Cafà - Andrea Canova, Milano, Gallerie d'Italia - Skira, 2022