European Journal of Social Sciences Studies
ISSN: 2501-8590
ISSN-L: 2501-8590
Available on-line at: http://www.oapub.org/soc
10.5281/zenodo.155077
Volume 1│Issue 1│2016
THE URGENCY OF MAP LITERACY AND SPATIAL THINKING
FOR URBAN SOCIETY
Nuansa Bayu Segarai
Faculty of Education,
Swadaya Gunung Jati University, Cirebon, Indonesia
Abstract:
The development of maps is directly proportional to the rapid advance of information
and communication technology. Map becomes a tool to support a wide range of human
activities, especially for urban societies. Various professions, daily mobility and lifestyle
use map as a tool. It makes map literacy, for urban society, a must-have skill in order to
live more effectively and efficiently. Map literacy is believed to have an
interrelationship with spatial thinking. This ability gave a chance to build space literacy
required by the urban people to adapt, act, behave and make decisions within the
context of space. From the perspective of dynamic spatial changes and the complex
problems of urban areas, it is necessary for urban society to have excellent map literacy
and spatial thinking skills. Both of these abilities will reduce burden of urban society in
their activity. Map literacy and spatial thinking are very good to build from early age.
When children are already capable of abstract thinking, that's a good time to develop
them. One way to build spatial literacy and thinking skills is to put it into school
learning process. Social Science as a subject has a strategic position in developing that
ability. This article examines the importance of map literacy and the ability to think
spatially for urban society of the results of the literature study and previous research.
The discussion in this article started from the various urban problems associated with
space, then defined map literacy and spatial thinking ability and the role of Social
Studies in developing both of these abilities.
Keywords: map literacy, spatial thinking, urban society, social studies
Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved
Published by Open Access Publishing Group ©2015.
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Introduction
The urban people life pattern is changing from time to time and more widespread. The
urban life characteristic spread is caused by the cultural diffusion from urban area to
rural area, so there is the changing pattern from social, cultural and economic activities
of rural society. Some decades ago, Indonesia was known by its agricultural people life
pattern, with majority of people lived in rural area. But, now there is no this
phenomenon, based on BPS (Central Agency on Statistics) data in 2013, the number of
Indonesian people living in urban has exceeded the number if people in rural area. In
2015, the number of people living in urban has reached 53,3% throughout Indonesia
and been projected to increase reaching 66,6% in 2035. Beside the urban development
area spread, urbanization is also the contributing factor for the increasing number and
density of people in Indonesian urban areas. We can find this trend not only in
Indonesian areas but also in almost every part of the world, also in both highest
continents, there is this trend as well, namely Asian and Africa Continents. The World
Bank predicts that in 2030, the number of Asian people in urban area will reach of 55,2%
while in Africa will reach of 54,3% (Dutt & Noble, 2003:3). The changing of people trend
in the world, generally, and in Indonesia, particularly, will affects on the human life
system and pattern. It is necessary for anticipation and adaptation for all rural people to
start to be urban people, but the need to adaptation and anticipation for the spatial
change is not only for migrant people, but also for native people in urban areas because
there is a massive change from social, cultural and economic life aspects.
There are significant effects of urbanization on spatial survival in urban areas.
The density caused by the overpopulation creates the insufficient land supporting
power. The demand of habitation is very high, so it changes the function of agricultural
land to be densely populated areas, having potential to be slum area. Hinter land
eventually supplies the food for urban areas, while in another side, the agricultural
lands start to reduce and farmers start to lose human resources because of migration to
urban areas. The rural culture still owned by the dwellers in slum area causes the
environment in the area get affected directly, rivers become waste disposal and
household waste places, so that it increases the disaster potential. It means that the
urban people are necessary for correct and sustainable knowledge, understanding and
skills in giving response on the phenomena in their life space.
The urban area categorizing can be seen from some aspects, such as urban
morphology dominated by high buildings and many shops, if seeing from sub-urban
areas, so the building style in this area is still in urban characteristic, it differs from rural
buildings which are still simple and have fair functions. The urban people economic
system predominantly lives from non-agriculture sector; this also causes the
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agricultural land conversion in sub urban areas. The social relation of urban people can
also be seen from the interaction pattern, more straightforward socialization, having
high openness (interact with any one), but it is still segmented based on the interest.
The number of people is also the differentiator between rural and urban areas, in
Indonesia; Metropolitan City is a city having more than 1 million people until 10 million
people (Daldjoeni, 1998:41).
There are four big cities (Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung and Medan) in Indonesia
with almost similar changing dynamic and spatial problems. The four cities are the
central of growth as well as social, cultural, economic, politic and education activities so
that it is natural if there is rapid change along the time. The increasing number of
people causes an area supporting power adjusted by the growth. If it is not done, so
there are complex problems; such as issues to be the study from urban geography point
of view according to Hall (2006:1) as the following:
Where you live; Who you live among; Your opportunities for leisure and social
activities; Your personal mobility; Your income, career opportunities and access to
wealth; Your personal safety and your exposure to antisocial behaviour; Your health and
levels of stress; Your access to facilities such as financial and health services; The
pollution of your local environment.”
Currently, by the rapid urban area development, each people needs skill in
understanding his existence and function in the world. To gain the prosperity both
physically and spiritually, the urban people need the skill. The urban people need rapid
mobilization for vacation so that it can reduce the stress level. The urban people with
their dense, dynamic and full of planning and calculation activity need the skill to think
based on spatial condition, meaning that the urban people need the ability for spatial
knowledge, this ability can be developed by the increasing spatial knowledge, spatial
abilities, and spatial strategies which at the end leading the urban people to have the
spatial literacy (Jarvis, 2011:295). The complex and full of dynamic urban life lead the
urban people to adjust themselves and try to survive. The post-modernisme era of 21st
century affects on urban function and characteristics. Big cities in Indonesia have
certainly not changed following the postmodernism, but the development plan and
seeing the current change now, it seems to lead to the direction. Such as Bandung, now
it transforms into Smartcity, the main focus of development is the public facility and
infrastructure supporting the physical and spiritual demand for this city people. The
open space and place for self-expression are facilitated to reduce the social impact of the
existing spatial problems in Bandung, by the expectation of high happiness index in this
city. In 2016, the happiness index of people in Bandung city is in 70,60 value with scale
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of 0-100 (Bappeda Bandung). It means that the people in Bandung city have high
enough happiness index. The open space will affect on the people physical health, also
on the high happiness index, the people stress level will be reduced by the green open
space.
Bandung is only an example on how the spatial management will give impact on
human life. The city people need to possess the skills to observe, analyse and choose the
decision related to their life in urban. Various decisions supporting the activity to work
increase the life quality by considering the environment health, home spatial and ability
to see the danger potential, both from nature and social, this can be started by having
the spatial literacy. As a confirmation, to have the spatial literacy is necessary to
strengthen the knowledge on space and also the skill on spatial knowledge, both
theoretically and empirically can be deepened by familiarizing to use map
(Wakabayashi, 2013).
Map Literacy for Urban Community
Map is a tool required to get the information on space. The rapid development of
information technology creates digital accessible map any time and any place, by
supported with update and credible spatial information. The appearance of Google maps
leads to the use of map for all urban people activities, based on Google maps, there are
some applications facilitating the urban people activities. Map is not only used to
support the work for certain professions, but also simple activity related to life style
such as sport, shopping, camping and touring as the activities which can be supported
by map based application. The decision making on spatial in the case of choosing
location, setting route and getting spatial information such as distance, height, use of
land can support the activities done efficiently. Urban people should have the ability
and skill to read map and set route better than rural people (Apostolopoulou, 2011:42).
For example, people who will get a trip in long weekend, some of urban people get trip
to picnic. Along the trip, they must keep updating the newest spatial information so
that they will not get into any traffic jam, they certainly need to choose the best route
with the help of a map, this skill leads to more efficient trip.
Map provides access for humans to see, show and relate with their spatial
environment (Berendt, Rauh & Barkowsky, 1998:64). With map, urban people can do
the spatial interpretation in bigger scale. The changing map (digital map) can be used to
enrich the experiences on environment and required to explore the surrounding world
(Uttal, 2000:284). Representation to broader spatial can increase self confidence in taking
decision and solving problems related to the spatial activities. Such as traffic in city
streets, the use of GPS based digital map is very useful to know the actual information,
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so that if there is any problem, the use of map can take the decision fast and prevent
any problems. Even today, GPS serves great roles in helping the urban people to
conduct their professional works. The phenomena of Ojek application and Online Taxi
leads to map literacy skill with high urgency, both as the ojek and taxi drivers as well as
the use of transportation application.
The map literacy is not limited to the ability to merely read and use map. "Map
literacy refers to using maps in our daily lives and understanding them. It is composed
of five steps: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation" (Clarke, 2003, p. 717). Clarke statement is a representation of map
application taken from Bloom Taxonomy, one having map literacy skill will use map in
daily activities. Taxonomy is a series of thinking process, by following the process
delivered above, one having map literacy skill possesses the map knowledge, and may
be the knowledge related to the real space. Then, for the using the map, one is necessary
to understand the language in the map, as well as have the interpretation, translation
and extrapolation from the map symbols into mental process. After understanding the
map, one will be able to apply the mental description into the real space, one with this
skill will be easy to adjust the phenomena description in the map and adjust the
condition in the field. The next level is the ability to analyse, synthesis, and evaluate
according to Bloom categorized as high order thinking. The urban people need to have
this skill to set and make decision. As an example in using map in general for daily
activities, it is by the digital traffic map with updated information and being able to
relate a spatial phenomenon and other phenomenon. For example, one with excellent
map literacy drives his car, realizes that today is may day, so, he can directly take the
route by relating the information obtained by the traffic map, even by additional
information from radio. Then, finally he is able to conclude the fastest route and may
assess whether the decision taken is the appropriate one or not. By thinking process,
literacy map is not only skill used to read and show direction, but more than that, even
for common people who have profession far from the use of map, even one with minim
map literacy skill will understand the distribution variation of an event, phenomenon
and objects and then interpret them (Koç&Demir, 2014, p. 121).
It appropriate for urban people who want to have high mobility, self confidence
in any trip, require up to date spatial information as well as want to adapt on new
spatial fast, requires the map literacy skill. If the physical demand is met and is not
required more time and energy, so physiologically, it will shape the peace soul, and
prevent from any stress and social pathology.
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Spatial Thinking for Urban People
Study on spatial thinking has long been discussed, but it becomes the hot issue in one
decade ago, precisely after the National Research Council published a book titled
Learning to Think Spatially . The content formulates the concepts and definition on
spatial thinking. It also discusses on how to increase the spatial thinking skill using GIS
(Geography Information System) in learning process at school. Also, there are many
articles discussing and analysing the spatial thinking skill. The spatial thinking articles
and definitions create this skill as a variable in any studies. Jo (2007) in his thesis
formulated the spatial thinking taxonomy. According Jo (2007), spatial thinking is a
thinking process started from input, process and output. Each thinking process has
three levels in thinking process, namely spatial primitives, simple-spatial and complex
spatial. Then, Lee & Bednarz (2012) constructed a tool for measuring the spatial thinking
ability called as STAT (Spatial Thinking Ability Test). The aspects of spatial thinking
abilities covered by STAT include: (1) comprehending orientation and direction; (2)
comparing map information to graphic information; (3) choosing the best location based
on several spatial factors; (4) imagining a slope profile based on a topographic map; (5)
correlating spatially distributed phenomena; (6) mentally visualizing 3-D images based
on 2-D information; (7) overlaying and dissolving maps; and (8) comprehending
geographic features represented as point, line, or polygon (Lee &Bednarz, 2012:18). The
test refers to the definition delivered by National Research Council:
Spatial thinking is a collection of cognitive skills. The skills consist of
declarative and perceptual forms of knowledge and some cognitive operations
that can be used to transform, combine, or otherwise operate on this knowledge.
The key to spatial thinking is a constructive amalgam of three elements: concepts
of space, tools of representation, and processes of reasoning. (2006:5)
In the definition, it is reaffirmed that the spatial thinking is a cognitive skill consisting
of three components building the spatial thinking skill. These components are the
developments in many previous studies. Verma (2014:51) did a change in composing
the instruments to measure the spatial thinking skill called as GTS (Geospatial Thinking
Survey) consisting of six components / dimensions: Geospatial pattern and transition;
Direction and orientation; Geospatial profile and transition; Geospatial association and
transition; Geospatial shapes; Geospatial overlay. In real, the components used by
Verma are the parts of concepts of space, tools of representation, and processes of
reasoning.
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Based on the dimension used by Verma (2014), the writer formulated the
indicators to measure the spatial thinking skill consisting of: 1) looking at geo-spatial
patterns; comparing and changing the information in map into graphs; 2) setting the
place; looking for direction, planning route and understanding the direction in map; 3)
setting the geospatial formation from map; identifying height of a location from map;
setting the use of land from earth surface map. 5) adjusting the geospatial phenomena
in map with the real figures; 6) identifying and understanding the integration between
geospatial phenomena and symbols in map. (points, lines and polygon/ area); 7) setting
and deciding the location based on information in some maps. The indicators are
expected to have the function to measure the thinking skill on space in urban areas.
Seeing the indicators in spatial thinking skill, it will be seen how important this
skill in today's modern life. This ability is needed for a variety of daily activities and
also high-skill professions. A profession requiring the spatial thinking skill as
exemplified by the National Research Council (2006), are: architects, geologists,
astronomers, geoscientist, social scientists, surveyors, engineers, explorers, doctors, etc.
This capability is also needed for daily activities such as: navigation, choosing a route,
selecting a location, identification and solving spatial problems. Such as in shopping, a
woman needs to determine the navigation routes and has the ability to be effective and
efficient in her journey. The route planning is necessary to choose the path from one
shop to another, so that it is required spatial orientation and interpretation. A
government official, especially in urban areas, needs to have the ability to view and
analyze their own spatial conditions. It is necessary for any attention and awareness to
take out policies and solve problems related to space. The improved accuracy in
mapping with the adjustment of various needs will facilitate the government officials to
make decisions and decisive steps in the planning, implementation and evaluation of all
matters related to its territory.
Role of Social Studies
Seeing the importance of map literacy skill and spatial thinking for life in this modern
era, it makes the scientists to compete to study theoretically and empirically on how to
develop both skills. Gauvain (1993) recommended the developmental cognitive theory and
social-cognitive learning theory initiated by Piaget and Vygotsky, according to them, the
ability of spatial thinking is a cognitive process shaped by socio-cultural factors, to
develop this skill, it is necessary for habituation action. Meetings and communication
within a community in everyday life will develop the spatial thinking skill. Gauvain
(1993:99) gave an example, It is likely that these basic search and locating abilities are
supported enhanced by the emergence of symbolic understanding and verbal
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communication skills. Cultural tools and practices such as organization schemes use
and arranging items in the environment, symbolic systems like maps and models used
for external storage and description of space, and verbal communication skills that
allow children to ask for provide assistance and information about space may be used
extensively to support and enhance the basic spatial search capabilities even the
preschool years. Map is one of the media supporting for developing spatial thinking
skills. One way to popularize the map is to introduce it early through a learning process
at schools. The habituation to use maps which can be done is to use a map as a medium,
a source and a tool in learning.
Map not only enhance the cognitive ability when presented in the learning
process in the classroom, but there are also positive effects on the development of
values, attitudes, competencies, and some specific skills (Adeyemi&Cishe, 2015)
including: 1) Reflective / Critical thinking; 2) Keen observation; 3) Accurate
measurement; 4) Appreciation of the environment; 5) Patience and endurance; 6)
Respect for other people’s opinions etc- all of which are crucial to man’s existence on
the surface of the earth, are developed in the students (Adeyemi, 2002; FRN, 2004;
Mansaray, 1992). In line with a research done by Yousaf, Aziz and Hassan (2012: 183)
who managed to prove that maps and globes were effectively used to improve the
student thinking ability, especially in the domain of knowledge, understanding and
application. Besides, it also increases the affective aspects such as class participation,
attendance, behaviour and ability to do the work.
Social Studies has a strategic position to develop the spatial thinking ability.
Although very closely with the study of geography but, in social sciences, the spatial
thinking highly has strategic function. Spatial thinking is a useful tool in the social
sciences for the discovery and understanding of new knowledge. Advances in spatial
technologies and the increasing availability of spatial data and low-cost data collection,
analysis and representation tools have contributed to the application of spatial thinking
in all areas of social science (Hespanha, Goodchild& Janelle, 2009, p. 26). The spatial
thinking can be combined and applied to the social science concepts supporting the
social studies learning. Through the learning oriented to the development of spatial
thinking skills, it will embody a powerful learning of social studies.
The map is very supportive for social studies powerful learning, and
theoretically capable to develop the spatial thinking skills, for that one of the effective
ways and having clarity in practice is to make map literacy as social studies learning
model. Map literacy model will be developed by the foundation of social-cognitive
theory by Vytgotsky. The components in this model refer to the approach by Bruce,
Weil & Calhoun (2008), which consists of focus, the syntax, the role of teachers, social
systems, support systems, and companion instructional impact. In the end, this model is
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expected to effectively develop the literacy map skill and spatial thinking skill which
are useful for human life, especially urban communities.
Conclusion
Urban community requires a variety of skills in meeting their needs, literacy maps and
spatial thinking are both useful skills for urban people. Both abilities are needed for a
variety of human activities associated with their living space, function literacy maps
and spatial thinking for humans not only enhance the cognitive ability, but also aspects
of the attitudes, values, and behaviour towards space. Developing both these
capabilities is by trying to introduce and familiarize the use of maps in daily activities,
one way to popularize it to put it in the social studies learning, the map can be used as a
medium, resource and learning tool that makes social studies learning becomes a
powerful one.
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