THE EFFECTS OF STRENUOUS EXERCISE AND NUTRITION ON THE IMMUNE FUNCTIONS OF ELITE ATHLETES
Abstract
The intense activities carried out by athletes result in them undergoing acute and chronic stress and this in turn will suppress their immune system as well as increase their oxidative species generation. On top of that, these athletes has a tendency to consume less calories than what is needed and they also have a tendency to avoid consuming fats, and the latter action may affect their immune system and anti-oxidant mechanisms. The stress caused by the exercise is dependent upon how intense the exercise is and its duration, and it is relative to the athlete’s maximum capacity. The depletion of glycogen in the muscles affects the performance of the exercise as well as increases the stress. However, the glycogen stores can be protected if there is an increase in fat oxidation (glycogen sparing). Athletes should have balanced diets whereby the total calories consumed is the same as that expended and the carbohydrates and fats that are utilized must be replenished. However, many athletes fail to meet these important basic criteria thus compromising their glycogen or fat stores, and do not consume sufficient essential fats and micronutrients which are required to maintain their intense exercise, immune competence and anti-oxidant defense. Over-training or malnourishment may result in an increased risk of infections. In some cases, the intake of micronutrient supplements may strengthen the immune system and make up for the deficiency of the essential nutrients. Any nutrient deficiencies in the athletes’ diet must be compensated with nutritional supplements, but it must not be over compensated. If the above-mentioned rules are complied with and the training are properly regulated so that there is no overtraining, the immune system can be maintained at the optimal level and this in turn will reduce the risk of diseases.
Article visualizations:
Keywords
References
Alexander, Michael, Harold Newmark, and Richard G. Miller. "Oral beta-carotene can increase the number of OKT4+ cells in human blood." Immunology letters 9.4 (1985): 221-224.
Peters, Edith M., et al. "Vitamin C supplementation reduces the incidence of postrace symptoms of upper-respiratory-tract infection in ultramarathon runners." The American journal of clinical nutrition 57.2 (1993): 170-174.
Nieman DC, Johanssen LM, Lee JW, et al. Infectious episodes in runners before and after the Los Angeles Marathon. J Sports Med Phys Fit (1990); 30: 28- 316.
Mackinnon LT, Ginn EM, Seymour GJ. Temporal relationship between decreased salivary IgA and upper respiratory tract infection in elite athletes. Aust J Sci Med Sport (1993); 25: 94-9.
Mackinnon LT, Hooper SL, Jones S, et al. Hormonal, immunological, and hematological responses to intensified training in elite swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc (1997); 29: 45-1637.
Barrett, Bruce P., et al. "Treatment of the common cold with unrefined echinacea: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial." Annals of Internal Medicine 137.12 (2002): 939-946.
Pedersen BK, Ostrowski K, Rhode T, et al. Strenuous exercise – a model of the cytokine response to trauma and sepsis. Can J Physiol Pharmacol (1998); 76: 505-11.
Eskola J, Ruuskanen O, Soppi E, et al. Effect of sport stress on lymphocyte transformation and antibody formation. Clin Exp Immunol (1978); 32: 339- 45.
Beals, Katherine A., and Melinda M. Manore. "The prevalence and consequences of subclinical eating disorders in female athletes." International Journal of Sport Nutrition 4.2 (1994): 175-195.
Bassit, Reinaldo A., et al. "Branched-chain amino acid supplementation and the immune response of long-distance athletes." Nutrition 18.5 (2002): 376-379.
Bishop, N. C., et al. "Effects of carbohydrate and fluid intake on the blood leucocyte responses to prolonged cycling." J Sports Sci 17 (1999): 26-7.
Nieman, D. C. "Exercise immunology: practical applications." International Journal of Sports Medicine 18.S 1 (1997): S91-S100.
Bishop, N. C., et al. "Carbohydrate Beverage Ingestion and Neutrophil Degranulation Responses Following Cycling to Fatigue at 75% V˙ O2 max." International journal of sports medicine 22.03 (2001): 226-231.
Peters-Futre EM. Vitamin C, neutrophil function, and upper respiratory tract infection risk in distance runners: the missing link. Exerc Immunol Rev (1997); 3: 32-52.
Pedersen, Bente Klarlund, et al. "Muscle-derived interleukin-6: lipolytic, anti-inflammatory and immune regulatory effects." Pflügers Archiv 446.1 (2003): 9-16.
Coutsoudis, A., Kiepiela, P., Coovadia, H.M. and Broughton, M. (1992). Vitamin A supplementation enhances specific IgG antibody levels and total lymphocyte numbers while improving morbidity in measles. Paediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 11, 203–209.
Pedersen BK, Tvede N, Christensen LD, et al. Natural killer cell activity in peripheral blood of highly trained and untrained persons. Int J Sports Med (1989); 10: 129-31.
Gleeson, Michael, David C. Nieman, and Bente K. Pedersen. "Exercise, nutrition and immune function." Journal of sports sciences 22.1 (2004): 115-125.
Eskola J, Ruuskanen O, Soppi E, et al. Effect of sport stress on lymphocyte transformation and antibody formation. Clin Exp Immunol (1978); 32: 339-45.
Kinsella, J. E. "Effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids on factors related to cardiovascular disease." The American journal of cardiology 60.12 (1987): 23-32.
Toft, Anders Dyhr, et al. "N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids do not affect cytokine response to strenuous exercise." Journal of applied physiology 89.6 (2000): 2401-2406.
Venkatraman, Jaya T., and David R. Pendergast. "Effect of dietary intake on immune function in athletes." Sports medicine 32.5 (2002): 323-337.
Coutsoudis, Anna, et al. "Vitamin A supplementation enhances specific IgG antibody levels and total lymphocyte numbers while improving morbidity in measles." The Pediatric infectious disease journal 11.3 (1992): 203-208.
Fogelholm, Mikael. "Vitamins: metabolic functions." Nutrition in Sport (2008): 266.
Peake, Jonathan M., Katsuhiko Suzuki, and Jeff S. Coombes. "The influence of antioxidant supplementation on markers of inflammation and the relationship to oxidative stress after exercise." The Journal of nutritional biochemistry 18.6 (2007): 357-371.
Gleeson, Michael. "Immune function in sport and exercise." Journal of applied physiology 103.2 (2007): 693-699.
Philips, Neena, et al. "Vitamins in the Therapy of Inflammatory and Oxidative Diseases." Frontiers in Clinical Drug Research–Anti Allergy Agents 1 (2013): 1240.
Nikolaidis, Michalis G., et al. "The effect of muscle-damaging exercise on blood and skeletal muscle oxidative stress." Sports Medicine 38.7 (2008): 579-606.
Pedersen, Bente Klarlund, and Laurie Hoffman-Goetz. "Exercise and the immune system: regulation, integration, and adaptation." Physiological reviews 80.3 (2000): 1055-1081.
Mitchell, J. B., et al. "Influence of carbohydrate status on immune responses before and after endurance exercise." Journal of Applied Physiology 84.6 (1998): 1917-1925.
Ibid, 1918-1920.
Nehlsen-Cannarella, S. L., et al. "Carbohydrate and the cytokine response to 2.5 h of running." Journal of Applied Physiology 82.5 (1997): 1662-1667.
Gleeson, Michael. "Immune function in sport and exercise." Journal of applied physiology 103.2 (2007): 693-699.
Henson, Dru A., et al. "Influence of exercise mode and carbohydrate on the immune response to prolonged exercise." International journal of sport nutrition 9.2 (1999): 213-228.
Hemmi, Hiroaki, et al. "Small anti-viral compounds activate immune cells via the TLR7 MyD88–dependent signaling pathway." Nature immunology 3.2 (2002): 196-200.
Gleeson, Michael, and Clyde Williams. "Intense exercise training and immune function."Limits of Human Endurance. Vol. 76. Karger Publishers, 2013. 39-50.
Gunzer, Wolfgang, Manuela Konrad, and Elisabeth Pail. "Exercise-induced immunodepression in endurance athletes and nutritional intervention with carbohydrate, protein and fat—what is possible, what is not?." Nutrients 4.9 (2012): 1187-1212.
Gleeson, Michael, Graeme I. Lancaster, and Nicolette C. Bishop. "Nutritional strategies to minimise exercise-induced immunosuppression in athletes." Canadian journal of applied physiology 26.S1 (2001): S23-S35.
Bishop, Nicolette C., et al. "Carbohydrate and fluid intake affect the saliva flow rate and IgA response to cycling." Medicine and science in sports and exercise 32.12 (2000): 2046-2051.
Chew, Boon P., and Jean Soon Park. "Carotenoid action on the immune response." The Journal of nutrition 134.1 (2004): 257S-261S.
Northoff, H., A. Berg, and C. Weinstock. "Similarities and differences of the immune response to exercise and trauma: the IFN-γ concept." Canadian journal of physiology and pharmacology 76.5 (1998): 497-504.
Ibid, 498- 502.
Haddad, Pierre S., et al. "Natural health products, modulation of immune function and prevention of chronic diseases." Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2.4 (2005): 513-520.
Barrett, Bruce P., et al. "Treatment of the common cold with unrefined echinacea: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial." Annals of Internal Medicine 137.12 (2002): 939-946.
Isolauri, Erika, et al. "Probiotics: effects on immunity." The American journal of clinical nutrition 73.2 (2001): 444s-450s.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46827/ejpe.v0i0.628
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
Copyright (c) 2017 Thaer Jabbar Jabbar Ashour, Cherifi Ali, Hala Mikhael Youssef
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright © 2015 - 2023. European Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science (ISSN 2501 - 1235) is a registered trademark of Open Access Publishing Group. All rights reserved.
This journal is a serial publication uniquely identified by an International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) serial number certificate issued by Romanian National Library (Biblioteca Nationala a Romaniei). All the research works are uniquely identified by a CrossRef DOI digital object identifier supplied by indexing and repository platforms. All authors who send their manuscripts to this journal and whose articles are published on this journal retain full copyright of their articles. All the research works published on this journal are meeting the Open Access Publishing requirements and can be freely accessed, shared, modified, distributed and used in educational, commercial and non-commercial purposes under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0).
