INCLUSION POLICIES IN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION OVER THE PAST DECADE: A POLICY-ORIENTED NARRATIVE REVIEW
Abstract
Inclusive education has become a central priority within the educational agenda of the European Union over the past decade. Influenced by international human rights frameworks, particularly the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), European educational systems have progressively shifted from segregated and integration-based models toward broader inclusion-oriented approaches. This narrative review examines the evolution of inclusion policies across EU educational systems between 2015 and 2025. The review synthesizes policy documents, European Commission reports, research literature, and comparative educational studies focusing on disability, social inclusion, migrant education, equity, digital accessibility, teacher preparation, and systemic reform. Findings indicate that although significant progress has occurred in legislative harmonization, accessibility frameworks, and inclusive pedagogies, considerable disparities remain among Member States regarding implementation, funding, teacher preparedness, and equitable participation. The review further highlights the growing emphasis on whole-school approaches, Universal Design for Learning (UDL), digital inclusion, and intersectional understandings of educational disadvantage. Persistent barriers include inadequate teacher training, insufficient interdisciplinary support, and structural inequalities affecting marginalized groups. The article concludes that the future of inclusive education in Europe depends on systemic transformation rather than isolated interventions, requiring coordinated policy alignment, sustainable funding, and culturally responsive pedagogies.
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Ainscow, M. (2020). Promoting inclusion and equity in education: Lessons from international experiences. Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy, 6(1), 7–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/20020317.2020.1729587
Anderson, J., Boyle, C., & Deppeler, J. (2014). The ecology of inclusive education: Reconceptualising inclusive education. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 18(10), 989–1006. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2013.826243
Artiles, A. J. (2019). Reimagining equity research: Disability identification disparities as a case in point. Exceptional Children, 85(2), 147–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402918793234
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1997). Writing narrative literature reviews. Review of General Psychology, 1(3), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.1.3.311
Booth, T., & Ainscow, M. (2016). Index for inclusion: Developing learning and participation in schools (4th ed.). Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44834198_Index_for_Inclusion_Developing_Learning_and_Participation_in_Schools
Cefai, C., Bartolo, P. A., Cavioni, V., & Downes, P. (2021). Strengthening social and emotional education as a core curricular area across the EU: A review of the international evidence. European Commission. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2766/664439
Council of the European Union. (2015). Joint report of the Council and the Commission on the implementation of the strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (ET 2020). Official Journal of the European Union. Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/GA/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52015XG1215(02)
De Benedictis, L., & Leoni, S. (2021). Inclusive universities: Evidence from the Erasmus program. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2105.02212
Di Pietro, G., Biagi, F., Costa, P., Karpiński, Z., & Mazza, J. (2020). The likely impact of COVID-19 on education: Reflections based on the existing literature and recent international datasets. European Commission, Joint Research Centre. Retrieved from https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC121071
Ebersold, S., Kyriazopoulou, M., & Kefallinou, A. (2019). Inclusive education in Europe: Policy and practice challenges. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 34(3), 321–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2019.1603603
European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. (2017). Financing policies for inclusive education systems. European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. Retrieved from https://www.european-agency.org/resources/publications/financing-policies-inclusive-education-systems-final-summary-report
European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. (2018). Promoting common values and inclusive education. European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. Retrieved from https://www.european-agency.org/sites/default/files/promoting_common_values_and_inclusive_education.pdf
European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. (2021). Teacher professional learning for inclusion. European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education.
European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. (2022). Changing role of specialist provision in supporting inclusive education. European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. Retrieved from https://www.european-agency.org/activities/teacher-professional-learning-for-inclusion
European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. (2022). EASNIE position on inclusive education systems. European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. Retrieved from https://www.european-agency.org/about-us/who-we-are/agency-position-inclusive-education-systems
European Commission. (2017). European Pillar of Social Rights. European Commission.
European Commission. (2018). Council recommendation on promoting common values, inclusive education and the European dimension of teaching. European Commission. Retrieved from https://education.ec.europa.eu/focus-topics/improving-quality/inclusive-education/common-values
European Commission. (2020). Achieving the European Education Area by 2025. European Commission. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_20_1743
European Commission. (2022). Inclusive and equitable quality education in the EU. European Commission.
European Commission. (2023). European Education Area progress report 2023. European Commission.
European Commission. (2024). Inclusive education. European Commission. Retrieved from https://education.ec.europa.eu/focus-topics/improving-quality/inclusive-education
European Parliament. (2017). Inclusive education for learners with disabilities. European Parliament. Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2017/596807/IPOL_STU(2017)596807_EN.pdf
European Union. (2015). Paris Declaration on promoting citizenship and common values of freedom, tolerance and non-discrimination through education. European Union.
Florian, L. (2009). Preparing teachers to work in “schools for all”. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(4), 533–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.02.004
Florian, L. (2015). Conceptualising inclusive pedagogy: The inclusive pedagogical approach in action. In J. M. Deppeler, T. Loreman, R. Smith, & L. Florian (Eds.), Inclusive pedagogy across the curriculum (Vol. 7, pp. 11–24). Emerald Group Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-363620150000007001
Florian, L., & Black-Hawkins, K. (2011). Exploring inclusive pedagogy. British Educational Research Journal, 37(5), 813–828. https://doi.org/10.1080/01411926.2010.501096
Florian, L., & Camedda, D. (2020). Enhancing teacher education for inclusion. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(1), 4–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1707579
Florian, L., & Spratt, J. (2013). Enacting inclusion: A framework for interrogating inclusive practice. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 28(2), 119–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2013.778111
Göransson, K., & Nilholm, C. (2014). Conceptual diversities and empirical shortcomings: A critical analysis of research on inclusive education. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 29(3), 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2014.933545
Green, B. N., Johnson, C. D., & Adams, A. (2006). Writing narrative literature reviews for peer-reviewed journals: Secrets of the trade. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine, 5(3), 101–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-3467(07)60142-6
Kefallinou, A., Kyriazopoulou, M., & Weber, H. (2020). Inclusive education in Europe: Reflecting upon 25 years of changes in policy and practice. Prospects, 49(3–4), 261–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-020-09506-3
Losberg, J., & Hess, F. (2024). Inclusive pedagogy through the lens of primary teachers and teaching assistants. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 28(4), 402–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2021.1946722
Messiou, K. (2017). Research in the field of inclusive education: Time for a rethink? International Journal of Inclusive Education, 21(2), 146–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2016.1223184
Meyer, A., Rose, D. H., & Gordon, D. (2014). Universal design for learning: Theory and practice. CAST Professional Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276267753_Universal_Design_for_Learning_Theory_and_practice
Mitchell, D. (2015). Inclusive education is a multi-faceted concept. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 5(1), 9–30. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.151
Nilholm, C. (2021). Research about inclusive education in 2020: How can we improve our theories in order to change practice? European Journal of Special Needs Education, 36(3), 358–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2020.1754547
OECD. (2018). Equity in education: Breaking down barriers to social mobility. OECD Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2018/10/equity-in-education_g1g96efd/9789264073234-en.pdf
OECD. (2020). Education responses to COVID-19: Embracing digital learning and online collaboration. OECD Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2020/03/education-responses-to-covid-19-embracing-digital-learning-and-online-collaboration_21f884d2.html
OECD. (2023). Education policy outlook in the European Union. OECD Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2023/11/education-policy-outlook-2023_06f957b6/f5063653-en.pdf
Opertti, R., Walker, Z., & Zhang, Y. (2018). Inclusive education from international perspectives. Prospects, 47(1–2), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-018-9447-x
Pantić, N., & Florian, L. (2015). Developing teachers as agents of inclusion and social justice. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 19(3), 333–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2014.935813
Saloviita, T. (2020). Attitudes of teachers towards inclusive education in Finland. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 64(2), 270–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2018.1541819
Sharma, U., Loreman, T., & Macanawai, S. (2016). Factors contributing to the implementation of inclusive education. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 20(2), 111–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2015.1081637
Slee, R. (2018). Inclusive education isn’t dead, it just smells funny. Routledge. Retrieved from https://www.routledge.com/Inclusive-Education-isnt-Dead-it-Just-Smells-Funny/Slee/p/book/9780367856069
UN Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. (2016). General Comment No. 4 (2016) on the right to inclusive education. United Nations. Retrieved from https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1313836?ln=en
UNESCO. (2020). Global education monitoring report 2020: Inclusion and education – All means all. UNESCO. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000373724
UNICEF. (2021). Seen, counted, included: Using data to shed light on the well-being of children with disabilities. UNICEF. Retrieved from https://data.unicef.org/resources/children-with-disabilities-report-2021/
United Nations. (2006). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. United Nations. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convoptprot-e.pdf
Waitoller, F. R., & Kozleski, E. B. (2015). No stone left unturned: Exploring the convergence of disability studies and critical race theory. Review of Research in Education, 39(1), 173–210. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X14546068
Watkins, A., & Meijer, C. (2016). Implementing inclusive education policy in Europe: Challenges and opportunities. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 31(3), 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2016.1187878
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.46827/ejes.v13i7.6740
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ilias Vasileiou
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright © 2015-2026. European Journal of Education Studies (ISSN 2501 - 1111) is a registered trademark of Open Access Publishing Group. All rights reserved.
This journal is a serial publication uniquely identified by an International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) serial number certificate issued by Romanian National Library (Biblioteca Nationala a Romaniei). All the research works are uniquely identified by a CrossRef DOI digital object identifier supplied by indexing and repository platforms. All authors who send their manuscripts to this journal and whose articles are published on this journal retain full copyright of their articles. All the research works published on this journal are meeting the Open Access Publishing requirements and can be freely accessed, shared, modified, distributed and used in educational, commercial and non-commercial purposes under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0).
